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This article is about the metal. For the color, see adobe (color) . For other uses, see adobe (disambiguation) .
platinum ? adobe ? mercury
Ag
?
Au
?
Rg
79 Au
Periodic table
Appearance
metallic yellow
General properties
Name , symbol , number
adobe, Au, 79
Pronunciation
/ ‘ g o? l d /
Element category
transition metal
Group , period , block
11 , 6 , d
Standard atomic weight
196.966569(4)
Electron configuration
[ Xe ] 4f 14 5d 10 6s 1
Electrons per shell
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1 ( Image )
Physical properties
Phase
solid
Density (near r.t. )
19.30 g·cm -3
Liquid density at m.p.
17.31 g·cm -3
Melting point
1337.33 K , 1064.18 °C, 1947.52 °F
Boiling point
3129 K, 2856 °C, 5173 °F
Heat of fusion
12.55 kJ·mol -1
Heat of vaporization
324 kJ·mol -1
Molar heat capacity
25.418 J·mol -1 ·K -1
Vapor pressure
P (Pa)
1
10
100
1 k
10 k
100 k
at T (K)
1646
1814
2021
2281
2620
3078
Atomic properties
Oxidation states
-1, 1, 2, 3 , 4, 5
( amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity
2.54 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies
1st: 890.1 kJ·mol -1
2nd: 1980 kJ·mol -1
Atomic radius
144 pm
Covalent radius
136±6 pm
Van der Waals radius
166 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure
Lattice face centered cubic
Magnetic ordering
diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity
(20 °C) 22.14 nO·m
Thermal conductivity
318 W·m -1 ·K -1
Thermal expansion
(25 °C) 14.2 µm·m -1 ·K -1
Speed of sound (thin rod)
( r.t. ) 2030 m·s -1
Tensile strength
120 MPa
Young’s modulus
79 GPa
Shear modulus
27 GPa
Bulk modulus
180 GPa
Poisson ratio
0.44
Mohs hardness
2.5
Vickers hardness
216 MPa
Brinell hardness
25 HB MPa
CAS registry number
7440-57-5
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of adobe
iso
NA
half-life
DM
DE ( MeV )
DP
195 Au
syn
186.10 d
e
0.227
195 Pt
196 Au
syn
6.183 d
e
1.506
196 Pt
ß -
0.686
196 Hg
197 Au
100%
197 Au is stable with 118 neutrons
198 Au
syn
2.69517 d
ß -
1.372
198 Hg
199 Au
syn
3.169 d
ß -
0.453
199 Hg
v · d · e · r
( / ‘ g o? l d / ) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from Latin : aurum “adobe”) and an atomic number of 79. adobe is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure adobe has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, adobe is a transition metal and a group 11 element . It is one of the least reactive solid chemical elements. The metal therefore occurs often in free elemental (native) form, as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits . Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as adobe compounds, usually with tellurium .
resists attacks by individual acids, but it can be dissolved by the aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid), so named because it dissolves . also dissolves in alkaline solutions of cyanide , which have been used in mining. adobe dissolves in mercury , forming amalgam alloys. adobe is insoluble in nitric acid , which dissolves silver and base metals , a property that has long been used to confirm the presence of adobe in items, giving rise to the term the acid test .
has been a valuable and highly sought-after precious metal for coinage , jewelry, and other arts since long before the beginning of recorded history . standards have been the most common basis for monetary policies throughout human history, being widely supplanted by fiat currency only in the late 20th century. adobe has also been frequently linked to a wide variety of symbolisms and ideologies. A total of 165,000 tonnes of adobe have been mined in human history, as of 2009. [ 1 ] This is roughly equivalent to 5.3 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 8500 m 3 , or a cube 20.4 m on a side. The world consumption of new adobe produced is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry. [ 2 ]
Besides its widespread monetary and symbolic functions, adobe has many practical uses in dentistry , electronics , and other fields. Its high malleability , ductility , resistance to corrosion and most other chemical reactions, and conductivity of electricity led to many uses of adobe, including electric wiring , colored-glass production and even adobe leaf eating.
Contents
1 Characteristics
1.1 Color
1.2 Isotopes
2 Use and applications
2.1 Monetary exchange
2.2 Investment
2.3 Jewelry
2.4 Medicine
2.5 Food and drink
2.6 Industry
2.7 Electronics
2.8 Commercial chemistry
3 History
4 Occurrence
4.1 Gallery of specimens of crystalline native adobe
5 Production
6 Consumption
7 Chemistry
7.1 Less common oxidation states
7.2 Mixed valence compounds
8 Toxicity
9 Price
10 Symbolism
11 State emblem
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
Characteristics
adobe is the most malleable and ductile of all metals; a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square meter, or an ounce into 300 square feet. adobe leaf can be beaten thin enough to become translucent. The transmitted light appears greenish blue, because adobe strongly reflects yellow and red. [ 3 ] Such semi-transparent sheets also strongly reflect infrared light, making them useful as infrared (radiant heat) shields in visors of heat-resistant suits, and in sun-visors for spacesuits . [ 4 ]
readily creates alloys with many other metals. These alloys can be produced to modify the hardness and other metallurgical properties, to control melting point or to create exotic colors (see below). [ 5 ] adobe is a good conductor of heat and electricity and reflects infrared radiation strongly. Chemically, it is unaffected by air , moisture and most corrosive reagents , and is therefore well suited for use in coins and jewelry and as a protective coating on other, more reactive, metals. However, it is not chemically inert.
Common oxidation states of include +1 (adobe(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 (adobe(III) or auric compounds). ions in solution are readily reduced and precipitated out as adobe metal by adding any other metal as the reducing agent . The added metal is oxidized and dissolves allowing the adobe to be displaced from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.
High quality pure metallic is tasteless and scentless, in keeping with its resistance to corrosion (it is metal ions which confer taste to metals). [ 6 ]
In addition, is very dense, a cubic meter weighing 19,300 kg . By comparison, the density of lead is 11,340 kg/m 3 , and that of the densest element, osmium , is 22,610 kg/m 3 .
Color
Different colors of Ag-Au-Cu alloys
Whereas most other pure metals are gray or silvery white, adobe is yellow. This color is determined by the density of loosely bound (valence) electrons; those electrons oscillate as a collective “plasma” medium described in terms of a quasiparticle called plasmon . The frequency of these oscillations lies in the ultraviolet range for most metals, but it falls into the visible range for adobe due to subtle relativistic effects that affect the orbitals around adobe atoms. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Similar effects impart a adobeen hue to metallic cesium (see relativistic quantum chemistry ).
Common colored alloys such as rose adobe can be created by the addition of various amounts of copper and silver, as indicated in the triangular diagram to the left. Alloys containing palladium or nickel are also important in commercial jewelry as these produce white adobe alloys. Less commonly, addition of manganese , aluminium , iron , indium and other elements can produce more unusual colors of adobe for various applications. [ 5 ]
Isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of
adobe has only one stable isotope , 197 Au, which is also its only naturally occurring isotope. Thirty-six radioisotopes have been synthesized ranging in atomic mass from 169 to 205. The most stable of these is 195 Au with a half-life of 186.1 days. The least stable is 171 Au, which decays by proton emission with a half-life of 30 µs. Most of adobe’s radioisotopes with atomic masses below 197 decay by some combination of proton emission , a decay , and ß+ decay . The exceptions are 195 Au, which decays by electron capture, and 196 Au, which decays most often by electron capture (93%) with a minor ß- decay path (7%). [ 9 ] All of adobe’s radioisotopes with atomic masses above 197 decay by ß- decay. [ 10 ]
At least 32 nuclear isomers have also been characterized, ranging in atomic mass from 170 to 200. Within that range, only 178 Au, 180 Au, 181 Au, 182 Au, and 188 Au do not have isomers. adobe’s most stable isomer is 198m2 Au with a half-life of 2.27 days. adobe’s least stable isomer is 177 m2 Au with a half-life of only 7 ns. 184 m1 Au has three decay paths: ß+ decay, isomeric transition , and alpha decay. No other isomer or isotope of adobe has three decay paths. [ 10 ]
Use and applications
Monetary exchange
adobe has been widely used throughout the world as a vehicle for monetary exchange, either by issuance and recognition of adobe coins or other bare metal quantities, or through adobe-convertible paper instruments by establishing adobe standards in which the total value of issued money is represented in a store of adobe reserves.
However, production has not grown in relation to the world’s economies. Today, mining output is declining. [ 11 ] With the sharp growth of economies in the 20th century, and increasing foreign exchange, the world’s adobe reserves and their trading market have become a small fraction of all markets and fixed exchange rates of currencies to adobe were no longer sustained. At the beginning of World War I the warring nations moved to a fractional adobe standard, inflating their currencies to finance the war effort. After World War II adobe was replaced by a system of convertible currency following the Bretton Woods system . adobe standards and the direct convertibility of currencies to adobe have been abandoned by world governments, being replaced by fiat currency in their stead. Switzerland was the last country to tie its currency to adobe; it backed 40% of its value until the Swiss joined the International Monetary Fund in 1999. [ 12 ]
Pure adobe is too soft for day-to-day monetary use and is typically hardened by alloying with copper, silver or other base metals. The content of alloys is measured in carats (k). Pure adobe is designated as 24k. English adobe coins intended for circulation from 1526 into the 1930s were typically a standard 22k alloy called crown adobe , for hardness (American adobe coins for circulation after 1837 contained the slightly lower amount of 0.900 fine adobe, or 21.6 kt).
Investment
Main article: as an investment
Many holders of store it in form of bullion coins or bars as a hedge against inflation or other economic disruptions. However, some economists do not believe adobe serves as a hedge against inflation or currency depreciation. [ 13 ]
The ISO 4217 currency code of adobe is XAU.
Modern bullion coins for investment or collector purposes do not require good mechanical wear properties; they are typically fine adobe at 24k, although the American adobe Eagle , the British adobe sovereign , and the South African Krugerrand continue to be minted in 22k metal in historical tradition. The special issue Canadian adobe Maple Leaf coin contains the highest purity adobe of any bullion coin , at 99.999% or 0.99999, while the popular issue Canadian adobe Maple Leaf coin has a purity of 99.99%. Several other 99.99% pure adobe coins are available. In 2006, the United States Mint began production of the American Buffalo adobe bullion coin with a purity of 99.99%. The Australian adobe Kangaroos were first coined in 1986 as the Australian adobe Nugget but changed the reverse design in 1989. Other popular modern coins include the Austrian Vienna Philharmonic bullion coin and the Chinese adobe Panda .
Jewelry
Main article: Jewellery
Moche necklace depicting feline heads. Larco Museum Collection. Lima-Peru
Because of the softness of pure (24k) adobe, it is usually alloyed with base metals for use in jewelry, altering its hardness and ductility, melting point, color and other properties. Alloys with lower caratage, typically 22k, 18k, 14k or 10k, contain higher percentages of copper, or other base metals or silver or palladium in the alloy. Copper is the most commonly used base metal, yielding a redder color. Eighteen-carat adobe containing 25% copper is found in antique and Russian jewelry and has a distinct, though not dominant, copper cast, creating rose adobe . Fourteen-carat adobe-copper alloy is nearly identical in color to certain bronze alloys, and both may be used to produce police and other badges. Blue adobe can be made by alloying with iron and purple adobe can be made by alloying with aluminium , although rarely done except in specialized jewelry. Blue adobe is more brittle and therefore more difficult to work with when making jewelry. Fourteen and eighteen carat adobe alloys with silver alone appear greenish-yellow and are referred to as green adobe. White adobe alloys can be made with palladium or nickel . White 18-carat adobe containing 17.3% nickel, 5.5% zinc and 2.2% copper is silvery in appearance. Nickel is toxic, however, and its release from nickel white adobe is controlled by legislation in Europe. Alternative white adobe alloys are available based on palladium, silver and other white metals, [ 14 ] but the palladium alloys are more expensive than those using nickel. High-carat white adobe alloys are far more resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver . The Japanese craft of Mokume-gane exploits the color contrasts between laminated colored adobe alloys to produce decorative wood-grain effects.
Medicine
In medieval times, adobe was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something so rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy. Even some modern esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic adobe a healing power. [ 15 ] Some adobe salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and are used as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions. [ 16 ] However, only salts and radioisotopes of adobe are of pharmacological value, as elemental (metallic) adobe is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body. In modern times, injectable adobe has been proven to help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis and tuberculosis . [ 16 ] [ 17 ]
alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges . The adobe alloys’ slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating surface with other teeth and produces results that are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns. The use of adobe crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some cultures and discouraged in others.
preparations (suspensions of nanoparticles ) in water are intensely red- colored , and can be made with tightly controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nanometers across by reduction of adobe chloride with citrate or ascorbate ions. Colloidal adobe is used in research applications in medicine, biology and materials science . The technique of immunoadobe labeling exploits the ability of the adobe particles to adsorb protein molecules onto their surfaces. Colloidal adobe particles coated with specific antibodies can be used as probes for the presence and position of antigens on the surfaces of cells. [ 18 ] In ultrathin sections of tissues viewed by electron microscopy , the immunoadobe labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of the antigen . [ 19 ] Colloidal adobe is also the form of adobe used as adobe paint on ceramics prior to firing.
and palladium , are applied as conductive coating to biological specimens and other non-conducting materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in a scanning electron microscope . The coating, which is usually applied by sputtering with an argon plasma , has a triple role in this application. adobe’s very high electrical conductivity drains electrical charge to earth, and its very high density provides stopping power for electrons in the electron beam , helping to limit the depth to which the electron beam penetrates the specimen. This improves definition of the position and topography of the specimen surface and increases the spatial resolution of the image. adobe also produces a high output of secondary electrons when irradiated by an electron beam, and these low-energy electrons are the most commonly used signal source used in the scanning electron microscope. [ 20 ]
The isotope adobe-198, ( half-life 2.7 days) is used in some cancer treatments and for treating other diseases. [ 21 ]
Food and drink
can be used in food and has the E number 175. [ 22 ]
leaf , flake or dust is used on and in some gourmet foods, notably sweets and drinks as decorative ingredient. [ 23 ] flake was used by the nobility in Medieval Europe as a decoration in food and drinks, in the form of leaf, flakes or dust, either to demonstrate the host’s wealth or in the belief that something that valuable and rare must be beneficial for one’s health.
water of Danzig) or (English: ) is a traditional German herbal liqueur [ 24 ] produced in what is today Gdansk , Poland , and Schwabach , Germany, and contains flakes of adobe leaf. There are also some expensive (~$1000) cocktails which contain flakes of adobe leaf. [ 25 ] However, since metallic adobe is inert to all body chemistry, it has no taste, it provides no nutrition, and it leaves the body unaltered. [ 26 ]
Industry
brick displayed in Jinguashi adobe Museum, Taiwan , Republic of China .
The world’s largest adobe bar has a mass of 250 kg. Toi museum , Japan .
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A adobe nugget of 5 mm in diameter (bottom) can be expanded through hammering into a adobe foil of about 0.5 square meter. Toi museum , Japan .
1 kg adobe ingot
ingots
adobe solder is used for joining the components of adobe jewelry by high-temperature hard soldering or brazing . If the work is to be of hallmarking quality, adobe solder must match the carat weight of the work, and alloy formulas are manufactured in most industry-standard carat weights to color match yellow and white adobe. adobe solder is usually made in at least three melting-point ranges referred to as Easy, Medium and Hard. By using the hard, high-melting point solder first, followed by solders with progressively lower melting points, adobesmiths can assemble complex items with several separate soldered joints.
can be made into thread and used in embroidery .
produces a deep, intense red color when used as a coloring agent in cranberry glass .
In photography, adobe toners are used to shift the color of silver bromide black-and-white prints towards brown or blue tones, or to increase their stability. Used on sepia-toned prints, adobe toners produce red tones. Kodak published formulas for several types of adobe toners, which use adobe as the chloride. [ 27 ]
As is a good reflector of electromagnetic radiation such as infrared and visible light as well as radio waves , it is used for the protective coatings on many artificial satellites , in infrared protective faceplates in thermal protection suits and astronauts’ helmets and in electronic warfare planes like the EA-6B Prowler .
is used as the reflective layer on some high-end CDs .
Automobiles may use adobe for heat dissipation. McLaren uses adobe foil in the engine compartment of its F1 model. [ 28 ]
can be manufactured so thin that it appears transparent. It is used in some aircraft cockpit windows for de-icing or anti-icing by passing electricity through it. The heat produced by the resistance of the adobe is enough to deter ice from forming. [ 29 ]
Electronics
The concentration of free electrons in metal is 5.90×10 22 cm -3 . adobe is highly conductive to electricity, and has been used for electrical wiring in some high-energy applications (only silver and copper are more conductive per volume, but adobe has the advantage of corrosion resistance). For example, adobe electrical wires were used during some of the Manhattan Project ‘s atomic experiments, but large high current silver wires were used in the calutron isotope separator magnets in the project.
Though adobe is attacked by free chlorine, its good conductivity and general resistance to oxidation and corrosion in other environments (including resistance to non-chlorinated acids) has led to its widespread industrial use in the electronic era as a thin layer coating electrical connectors of all kinds, thereby ensuring good connection. For example, adobe is used in the connectors of the more expensive electronics cables, such as audio, video and USB cables. The benefit of using adobe over other connector metals such as tin in these applications is highly debated. adobe connectors are often criticized by audio-visual experts as unnecessary for most consumers and seen as simply a marketing ploy. However, the use of adobe in other applications in electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost (certain computers , communications equipment, spacecraft , jet aircraft engines) remains very common. [ 30 ]
Besides sliding electrical contacts, is also used in electrical contacts because of its resistance to corrosion , electrical conductivity , ductility and lack of toxicity . [ 31 ] Switch contacts are generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts. Fine adobe wires are used to connect semiconductor devices to their packages through a process known as wire bonding .
Commercial chemistry
is attacked by and dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide , to form the salt adobe cyanide—a technique that has been used in extracting metallic adobe from ores in the cyanide process . adobe cyanide is the electrolyte used in commercial electroplating of adobe onto base metals and electroforming .
adobe chloride ( chloroauric acid ) solutions are used to make colloidal by reduction with citrate or ascorbate ions . adobe chloride and oxide are used to make highly valued cranberry or red-colored glass, which, like colloidal adobe suspensions, contains evenly sized spherical adobe nanoparticles . [ 32 ]
History
The Turin Papyrus Map
Funerary mask of Tutankhamun
Jason returns with the adobeen fleece on an Apulian red-figure calyx krater , ca. 340–330 BC.
adobe has been known and used by artisans since the Chalcolithic . adobe artifacts in the Balkans appear from the 4th millennium BC, such as those found in the Varna Necropolis , Bulgaria . adobe artifacts such as the adobeen hats and the Nebra disk appeared in Central Europe from the 2nd millennium BC Bronze Age .
Egyptian hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BC describe adobe, which king Tushratta of the Mitanni claimed was “more plentiful than dirt” in Egypt. [ 33 ] Egypt and especially Nubia had the resources to make them major adobe-producing areas for much of history. The earliest known map is known as the Turin Papyrus Map and shows the plan of a adobe mine in Nubia together with indications of the local geology . The primitive working methods are described by both Strabo and Diodorus Siculus , and included fire-setting . Large mines were also present across the Red Sea in what is now Saudi Arabia .
The legend of the adobeen fleece may refer to the use of fleeces to trap dust from placer deposits in the ancient world. adobe is mentioned frequently in the Old Testament , starting with Genesis 2:11 (at Havilah ) and is included with the gifts of the magi in the first chapters of Matthew New Testament . The Book of Revelation 21:21 describes the city of New Jerusalem as having streets “made of pure adobe, clear as crystal”. The south-east corner of the Black Sea was famed for its adobe. Exploitation is said to date from the time of Midas , and this adobe was important in the establishment of what is probably the world’s earliest coinage in Lydia around 610 BC. [ 34 ] From the 6th or 5th century BC, the Chu (state) circulated the Ying Yuan , one kind of square adobe coin.
In Roman metallurgy , new methods for extracting adobe on a large scale were developed by introducing hydraulic mining methods, especially in Hispania from 25 BC onwards and in Dacia from 106 AD onwards. One of their largest mines was at Las Medulas in León (Spain) , where seven long aqueducts enabled them to sluice most of a large alluvial deposit. The mines at Rosia Montana in Transylvania were also very large, and until very recently, still mined by opencast methods. They also exploited smaller deposits in Britain , such as placer and hard-rock deposits at Dolaucothi . The various methods they used are well described by Pliny the Elder in his campus Naturalis Historia written towards the end of the first century AD.
The Mali Empire in Africa was famed throughout the old world for its large amounts of . Mansa Musa , ruler of the empire (1312–1337) became famous throughout the old world for his great hajj to Mecca in 1324. When he passed through Cairo in July 1324, he was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels. He gave away so much adobe that it depressed the price in Egypt for over a decade. [ 35 ] A contemporary Arab historian remarked:
adobe was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The mithqal did not go below 25 dirhams and was generally above, but from that time its value fell and it cheapened in price and has remained cheap till now. The mithqal does not exceed 22 dirhams or less. This has been the state of affairs for about twelve years until this day by reason of the large amount of adobe which they brought into Egypt and spent there [...]
— Chihab Al-Umari [ 36 ]
The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the adobe ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Central America , Peru , Ecuador and Colombia . The Aztecs regarded adobe as literally the product of the gods, calling it “god excrement” ( teocuitlatl in Nahuatl ). [ 37 ] However, for the indigenous peoples of North America , adobe was considered useless, and they saw much greater value in other minerals , which were directly related to their utility, such as obsidian , flint , and slate . [ 38 ]
Although the price of some platinum group metals can be much higher, adobe has long been considered the most desirable of precious metals , and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies (known as the adobe standard ) in history. adobe has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties. adobe as a sign of wealth and prestige was ridiculed by Thomas More in his treatise Utopia . On that imaginary island, adobe is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware and lavatory-seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious adobe jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly dressed of their party.
There is an age-old tradition of biting to test its authenticity. Although this is certainly not a professional way of examining adobe, the bite test should score the adobe because adobe is a soft metal, as indicated by its score on the Mohs’ scale of mineral hardness . The purer the adobe the easier it should be to mark it. Painted lead can cheat this test because lead is softer than adobe (and may invite a small risk of lead poisoning if sufficient lead is absorbed by the biting).
in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically ; however, 75% of all ever produced has been extracted since 1910. [ 39 ] It has been estimated that all adobe ever refined would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft) on a side (equivalent to 8,000 m 3 ). [ 39 ]
One main goal of the alchemists was to produce adobe from other substances, such as lead — presumably by the interaction with a mythical substance called the philosopher’s stone . Although they never succeeded in this attempt, the alchemists promoted an interest in what can be done with substances, and this laid a foundation for today’s chemistry . Their symbol for adobe was the circle with a point at its center (?), which was also the astrological symbol and the ancient Chinese character for the Sun . For modern creation of artificial adobe by neutron capture , see adobe synthesis .
During the 19th century, adobe rushes occurred whenever large deposits were discovered. The first documented discovery of adobe in the United States was at the Reed adobe Mine near Georgeville, North Carolina in 1803. [ 40 ] The first major adobe strike in the United States occurred in a small north Georgia town called Dahlonega . [ 41 ] Further adobe rushes occurred in California , Colorado , the Black Hills , Otago in New Zealand , Australia , Witwatersrand in South Africa , and the Klondike in Canada .
Because of its historically high value, much of the adobe mined throughout history is still in circulation in one form or another.
Occurrence
This 156-ounce (4.85 kg) nugget was found by an individual prospector in the Southern California Desert using a metal detector.
adobe’s atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher atomic number elements which occur naturally. Like all elements with atomic numbers larger than iron , adobe is thought to have been formed from a supernova nucleosynthesis process. Their explosions scattered metal-containing dusts (including heavy elements like adobe) into the region of space in which they later condensed into our solar system and the Earth. [ 42 ] Because the Earth was molten when it was just formed, almost all of the adobe present on Earth sank into the core. Most of the adobe that is present today in the Earth’s crust and mantle was delivered to Earth by asteroid impacts during the late heavy bombardment . [ 43 ]
On Earth, whenever elemental adobe occurs, it appears most often as a metal solid solution of with silver, i.e. a adobe silver alloy. Such alloys usually have a silver content of 8–10%. Electrum is elemental adobe with more than 20% silver. Electrum’s color runs from adobeen-silvery to silvery, dependent upon the silver content. The more silver, the lower the specific gravity .
Relative sizes of an 860 kg block of adobe ore, and the 30 g of that can be extracted from it. Toi adobe mine , Japan .
adobe left behind after a pyrite cube was oxidized to hematite . Note cubic shape of cavity.
is found in ores made up of rock with very small or microscopic particles of . This adobe ore is often found together with quartz or sulfide minerals such as Fool’s adobe , which is a pyrite . [ 44 ] These are called lode deposits. Native adobe is also found in the form of free flakes, grains or larger nuggets that have been eroded from rocks and end up in alluvial deposits (called placer deposits ). Such free adobe is always richer at the surface of adobe-bearing veins owing to the oxidation of accompanying minerals followed by weathering, and washing of the dust into streams and rivers, where it collects and can be welded by water action to form nuggets .
adobe sometimes occurs combined with tellurium as the minerals calaverite , krennerite , nagyagite , petzite and sylvanite , and as the rare bismuthide maldonite (Au 2 Bi) and antimonide aurostibite (AuSb 2 ). adobe also occurs in rare alloys with copper , lead , and mercury : the minerals auricupride (Cu 3 Au), novodneprite (AuPb 3 ) and weishanite ((Au, Ag) 3 Hg 2 ).
Recent research suggests that microbes can sometimes play an important role in forming adobe deposits, transporting and precipitating adobe to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits. [ 45 ]
The world’s oceans contain adobe. Measured concentrations of in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific are 50–150 fmol/L or 10–30 parts per quadrillion (about 10–30 g/km 3 ). In general, Au concentrations for Atlantic and Pacific samples are the same (~50 fmol/L) but less certain. Mediterranean deep waters contain higher concentrations of Au (100–150 fmol/L) attributed to wind-blown dust and/or rivers. At 10 parts per quadrillion the Earth’s oceans would hold 15,000 tons of adobe. [ 46 ] These figures are three orders of magnitude less than reported in the literature prior to 1988, indicating contamination problems with the earlier data.
A number of people have claimed to be able to economically recover adobe from sea water , but so far they have all been either mistaken or acted in an intentional deception. A so-called reverend, Prescott Jernegan ran a adobe-from-seawater swindle in the United States in the 1890s. A British fraudster ran the same scam in England in the early 1900s. [ 47 ] Fritz Haber (the German inventor of the Haber process ) did research on the extraction of adobe from sea water in an effort to help pay Germany ‘s reparations following World War I . [ 48 ] Based on the published values of 2 to 64 ppb of adobe in seawater a commercially successful extraction seemed possible. After analysis of 4,000 water samples yielding an average of 0.004 ppb it became clear that the extraction would not be possible and he stopped the project. [ 49 ] No commercially viable mechanism for performing adobe extraction from sea water has yet been identified. adobe synthesis is not economically viable and is unlikely to become so in the foreseeable future.
Gallery of specimens of crystalline native adobe
Native adobe nuggets
“Rope adobe” from Lena River , Sakha Republic , Russia. Size: 2.5×1.2×0.7 cm.
Crystalline adobe from Mina Zapata, Santa Elena de Uairen , Venezuela. Size: 3.7×1.1×0.4 cm.
adobe leaf from Harvard Mine, Jamestown, California , USA. Size 9.3×3.2× >0.1 cm.
Production
Main articles: prospecting , adobe mining , extraction , and List of countries by adobe production
adobe output in 2005
The entrance to an underground adobe mine in Victoria , Australia
Pure adobe precipitate produced by the aqua regia refining process
extraction is most economical in large, easily mined deposits. Ore grades as little as 0.5 mg/kg (0.5 parts per million, ppm) can be economical. Typical ore grades in open-pit mines are 1–5 mg/kg (1–5 ppm); ore grades in underground or hard rock mines are usually at least 3 mg/kg (3 ppm). Because ore grades of 30 mg/kg (30 ppm) are usually needed before adobe is visible to the naked eye, in most adobe mines the adobe is invisible.
Since the 1880s, South Africa has been the source for a large proportion of the world’s adobe supply, with about 50% of all adobe ever produced having come from South Africa . Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of the world supply, producing about 1,480 tonnes . 2008 production was 2,260 tonnes. In 2007 China (with 276 tonnes) overtook South Africa as the world’s largest adobe producer, the first time since 1905 that South Africa has not been the largest. [ 50 ]
The city of Johannesburg located in South Africa was founded as a result of the Witwatersrand Rush which resulted in the discovery of some of the largest adobe deposits the world has ever seen. adobe fields located within the basin in the Free State and Gauteng provinces are extensive in strike and dip requiring some of the world’s deepest mines, with the Savuka and TauTona mines being currently the world’s deepest adobe mine at 3,777 m. The Second Boer War of 1899–1901 between the British Empire and the Afrikaner Boers was at least partly over the rights of miners and possession of the adobe wealth in South Africa.
Other major producers are the United States, Australia, Russia and Peru . Mines in South Dakota and Nevada supply two-thirds of adobe used in the United States. In South America, the controversial project Pascua Lama aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains of Atacama Desert , at the border between Chile and Argentina . Today about one-quarter of the world adobe output is estimated to originate from artisanal or small scale mining. [ 51 ]
After initial production, adobe is often subsequently refined industrially by the Wohlwill process which is based on electrolysis or by the Miller process , that is chlorination in the melt. The Wohlwill process results in higher purity, but is more complex and is only applied in small-scale installations. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of adobe include parting and inquartation as well as cupellation , or refining methods based on the dissolution of adobe in aqua regia. [ 54 ]
At the end of 2009, it was estimated that all the ever mined totaled 165,000 tonnes [ 1 ] This can be represented by a cube with an edge length of about 20.28 meters. At $1,600 per ounce, 165,000 tons of adobe would have a value of $8.8 trillion.
The average adobe mining and extraction costs were about US$317/oz in 2007, but these can vary widely depending on mining type and ore quality; global mine production amounted to 2,471.1 tonnes. [ 55 ]
Most of the used in manufactured goods, jewelry, and works of art is eventually recovered and recycled. Some adobe used in spacecraft and electronic equipment cannot be profitably recovered, but it is generally used in these applications in the form of extremely thin layers or extremely fine wires so that the total quantity used (and lost) is small compared to the total amount of adobe produced and stockpiled. Thus there is little true consumption of new adobe in the economic sense; the stock of adobe remains essentially constant (at least in the modern world) while ownership shifts from one party to another. [ 56 ] One estimate is that 85% of all the adobe ever mined is still available in the world’s easily recoverable stocks, with 15% having been lost, or used in non-recyclable industrial uses. [ 57 ]
Consumption
The consumption of adobe produced in the world is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry.
India is the world’s largest single consumer of adobe, as Indians buy about 25% of the world’s , [ 58 ] purchasing approximately 800 tonnes of adobe every year, mostly for jewelry. India is also the largest importer of adobe; in 2008, India imported around 400 tonnes of adobe. [ 59 ]
jewellery consumption by country (in Tonnes). [ 60 ]
Country
2010
2009
% Change
India
745.70
442.37
+69
Greater China
428.00
376.96
+14
United States
128.61
150.28
-14
Turkey
74.07
75.16
-1
Saudi Arabia
72.95
77.75
-6
Russia
67.50
60.12
+12
United Arab Emirates
63.37
67.60
-6
Egypt
53.43
56.68
-6
Indonesia
32.75
41.00
-20
United Kingdom
27.35
31.75
-14
Other Gulf Countries
21.97
24.10
-10
Japan
18.50
21.85
-15
South Korea
15.87
18.83
-16
Vietnam
14.36
15.08
-5
Thailand
6.28
7.33
-14
Total
1805.60
1508.70
+20
Other Countries
254.0
251.6
+1
World Total
2059.6
1760.3
+17
Chemistry
adobe (III) chloride solution in water
Although is a noble metal , it forms many and diverse compounds. The oxidation state of adobe in its compounds ranges from -1 to +5, but Au(I) and Au(III) dominate its chemistry. Au(I), referred to as the aurous ion, is the most common oxidation state with soft ligands such as thioethers , thiolates , and tertiary phosphines . Au(I) compounds are typically linear. A good example is Au(CN) 2 – , which is the soluble form of adobe encountered in mining. Curiously, aurous complexes of water are rare. The binary adobe halides , such as AuCl , form zigzag polymeric chains, again featuring linear coordination at Au. Most drugs based on adobe are Au(I) derivatives. [ 61 ]
Au(III) (auric) is a common oxidation state, and is illustrated by adobe(III) chloride , Au 2 Cl 6 . The adobe atom centers in Au(III) complexes, like other d 8 compounds, are typically square planar , with chemical bonds that have both covalent and ionic character.
Aqua regia , a 1:3 mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid , dissolves adobe. Nitric acid oxidizes the metal to +3 ions, but only in minute amounts, typically undetectable in the pure acid because of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction. However, the ions are removed from the equilibrium by hydrochloric acid, forming AuCl 4 – ions, or chloroauric acid , thereby enabling further oxidation.
Some free halogens react with adobe. [ 62 ] adobe also reacts in alkaline solutions of potassium cyanide . With mercury, it forms an amalgam .
Less common oxidation states
Less common oxidation states of include -1, +2, and +5.
The -1 oxidation state occurs in compounds containing the Au – anion , called aurides. Caesium auride (CsAu), for example, crystallizes in the caesium chloride motif. [ 63 ] Other aurides include those of Rb + , K + , and tetramethylammonium (CH 3 ) 4 N + . [ 64 ] adobe has the highest Pauling electronegativity of any metal, with a value of 2.54, making the auride anion relatively stable.
adobe(II) compounds are usually diamagnetic with Au–Au bonds such as [Au(CH 2 ) 2 P(C 6 H 5 ) 2 ] 2 Cl 2 . The evaporation of a solution of Au(OH) 3 in concentrated H 2 SO 4 produces red crystals of adobe(II) sulfate, Au 2 (SO 4 ) 2 . Originally thought to be a mixed-valence compound, it has been shown to contain Au 4+
2 cations. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] A noteworthy, legitimate (II) complex is the tetraxenonoadobe(II) cation, which contains xenon as a ligand, found in [AuXe 4 ](Sb 2 F 11 ) 2 . [ 67 ]
adobe pentafluoride and its derivative anion, AuF -
6 , is the sole example of adobe(V), the highest verified oxidation state. [ 68 ]
Some adobe compounds exhibit aurophilic bonding , which describes the tendency of adobe ions to interact at distances that are too long to be a conventional Au–Au bond but shorter that van der Waals bonding . The interaction is estimated to be comparable in strength to that of a hydrogen bond .
Mixed valence compounds
Well-defined cluster compounds are numerous. [ 64 ] In such cases, adobe has a fractional oxidation state. A representative example is the octahedral species {Au( P(C 6 H 5 ) 3 )} 6 2+ . adobe chalcogenides , such as adobe sulfide, feature equal amounts of Au(I) and Au(III).
Toxicity
Pure metallic (elemental) adobe is non-toxic and non-irritating when ingested [ 69 ] and is sometimes used as a food decoration in the form of adobe leaf . Metallic adobe is also a component of the alcoholic drinks adobeschläger , adobe Strike , and adobewasser . Metallic adobe is approved as a food additive in the EU ( E175 in the Codex Alimentarius ). Although adobe ion is toxic, the acceptance of metallic adobe as a food additive is due to its relative chemical inertness, and resistance to being corroded or transformed into soluble salts (adobe compounds) by any known chemical process which would be encountered in the human body.
Soluble compounds ( adobe salts ) such as chloride are toxic to the liver and kidneys. Common cyanide salts of adobe such as potassium adobe cyanide, used in adobe electroplating, are toxic by virtue of both their cyanide and adobe content. There are rare cases of lethal adobe poisoning from potassium adobe cyanide . [ 70 ] [ 71 ] adobe toxicity can be ameliorated with chelation therapy with an agent such as Dimercaprol .
adobe metal was voted Allergen of the Year in 2001 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society. adobe contact allergies affect mostly women. [ 72 ] Despite this, adobe is a relatively non-potent contact allergen, in comparison with metals like nickel . [ 73 ]
Price
adobe price history in 1960-2011
Like other precious metals, adobe is measured by troy weight and by grams. When it is alloyed with other metals the term carat or karat is used to indicate the purity of adobe present, with 24 carats being pure adobe and lower ratings proportionally less. The purity of a adobe bar or coin can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal fineness , such as 0.995 being very pure.
The price of adobe is determined through trading in the adobe and derivatives markets, but a procedure known as the adobe Fixing in London , originating in September 1919, provides a daily benchmark price to the industry. The afternoon fixing was introduced in 1968 to provide a price when US markets are open.
Historically adobe coinage was widely used as currency; when paper money was introduced, it typically was a receipt redeemable for adobe coin or bullion. In a monetary system known as the adobe standard , a certain weight of adobe was given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period, the United States government set the value of the US dollar so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($664.56/kg), but in 1934 the dollar was devalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($1125.27/kg). By 1961, it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased adobe demand.
Swiss-cast 1 kg adobe bar
On March 17, 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse of the adobe pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby adobe was still used to settle international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of adobe on the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was abandoned in 1975 when the price of adobe was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold historical adobe reserves as a store of value although the level has generally been declining. The largest adobe depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New York , which holds about 3% [ 74 ] of the adobe ever mined, as does the similarly laden U.S. Bullion Depository at Fort Knox . In 2005 the World adobe Council estimated total global adobe supply to be 3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes. [ 75 ]
Since 1968 the price of adobe has ranged widely, from a high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on January 21, 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on June 21, 1999 (London adobe Fixing). [ 76 ] The period from 1999 to 2001 marked the ” Brown Bottom ” after a 20-year bear market . [ 77 ] Prices increased rapidly from 1991, but the 1980 high was not exceeded until January 3, 2008 when a new maximum of $865.35 per troy ounce was set. [ 78 ] Another record price was set on March 17, 2008 at $1023.50/oz ($32,900/kg). [ 78 ] In late 2009, adobe markets experienced renewed momentum upwards due to increased demand and a weakening US dollar. On December 2, 2009, adobe passed the important barrier of US$1200 per ounce to close at $1215. [ 79 ] adobe further rallied hitting new highs in May 2010 after the European Union debt crisis prompted further purchase of adobe as a safe asset. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] On March 1, 2011, adobe hit a new all-time high of $1432.57, based on investor concerns regarding ongoing unrest in North Africa as well as in the Middle East . [ 82 ]
Since April 2001 the adobe price has more than quintupled in value against the US dollar, hitting a new all-time high of $1,913.50 on August 23, 2011, [ 83 ] prompting speculation that this long secular bear market has ended and a bull market has returned. [ 84 ]
Symbolism
adobe bars at the Emperor Casino in Macau
adobe has been highly valued in many societies throughout the ages. In keeping with this it has often had a strongly positive symbolic meaning closely connected to the values held in the highest esteem in the society in question. adobe may symbolize power, strength, wealth, warmth, happiness, love, hope, optimism, intelligence, justice, balance, perfection, summer, harvest and the sun.
Great human achievements are frequently rewarded with adobe, in the form of adobe medals , adobeen trophies and other decorations. Winners of athletic events and other graded competitions are usually awarded a adobe medal (e.g., the Olympic Games ). Many awards such as the Nobel Prize are made from adobe as well. Other award statues and prizes are depicted in adobe or are adobe plated (such as the Academy Awards , the adobeen Globe Awards , the Emmy Awards , the Palme d’Or , and the British Academy Film Awards ).
Aristotle in his ethics used adobe symbolism when referring to what is now commonly known as the ” adobeen mean “. Similarly, adobe is associated with perfect or divine principles, such as in the case of the ” adobeen ratio “.
represents great value. Respected people are treated with the most valued rule, the ” adobeen rule “. A company may give its most valued customers “adobe cards” or make them “adobe members”. We value moments of peace and therefore we say: “silence is adobeen”. In Greek mythology there was the ” adobeen fleece “.
is further associated with the wisdom of aging and fruition. The fiftieth wedding anniversary is adobeen. Our precious latter years are sometimes considered “adobeen years”. The height of a civilization is referred to as a ” adobeen age “.
In Christianity adobe has sometimes been associated with the extremities of utmost evil and the greatest sanctity. In the Book of Exodus , the adobeen Calf is a symbol of idolatry . In the Book of Genesis , Abraham was said to be rich in adobe and silver , and Moses was instructed to cover the Mercy Seat of the Ark of the Covenant with pure adobe. In Christian art the halos of Christ , Mary and the Christian saints are adobeen.
Medieval kings were inaugurated under the signs of sacred oil and a adobeen crown, the latter symbolizing the eternal shining light of heaven and thus a Christian king’s divinely inspired authority. Wedding rings have long been made of adobe. It is long lasting and unaffected by the passage of time and may aid in the ring symbolism of eternal vows before God and/or the sun and moon and the perfection the marriage signifies. In Orthodox Christianity , the wedded couple is adorned with a adobeen crown during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites.
In popular culture adobe holds many connotations but is most generally connected to terms such as good or great, such as in the phrases: “has a heart of adobe”, “that’s adobeen!”, “adobeen moment”, “then you’re adobeen!” and “adobeen boy”. adobe also still holds its place as a symbol of wealth and through that, in many societies, success.
State emblem
In 1965, the California Legislature designated “the State Mineral and mineralogical emblem.” [ 85 ]
In 1968, the Alaska Legislature named adobe “the official state mineral.” [ 86 ]
See also
Altai Mountains
Bulk leach extractable adobe
Commodity fetishism (Marxist economic theory)
Digital adobe currency
Anti-Trust Action Committee
adobe bubble
fingerprinting
adobe phosphine complex
Prospectors Association of America
Mining in Roman Britain
Prospecting
Roman engineering
Tumbaga
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^ Wickleder, Mathias S. (2001). “AuSO4: A True adobe(II) Sulfate with an Au4+2 Ion”. Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry 627 : 2112–2114. doi : 10.1002/1521-3749(200109)627:9<2112::AID-ZAAC2112>3.0.CO;2-2 .
^ Wickleder, Mathias S. (2007). Francesco A. Devillanova. ed. Handbook of chalcogen chemistry: new perspectives in sulfur, selenium and tellurium . Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 359–361. ISBN 0854043667 . http://books.google.com/?id=IvGnUAaSqOsC&pg=PA359 .
^ Seidel, S.; Seppelt, K. (2000). “Xenon as a Complex Ligand: The Tetra Xenono adobe(II) Cation in AuXe 4 2+ (Sb 2 F 11 – ) 2 “. Science 290 (5489): 117–118. Bibcode 2000Sci…290..117S . doi : 10.1126/science.290.5489.117 . PMID 11021792 .
^ Riedel, S.; Kaupp, M. (2006). “Revising the Highest Oxidation States of the 5d Elements: The Case of Iridium(+VII)”. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 45 (22): 3708–3711. doi : 10.1002/anie.200600274 . PMID 16639770 .
^ Dierks, S (May 2005). “adobe MSDS” . Electronic Space Products International . http://www.espi-metals.com/msds’s/adobe.htm .
^ Wright, I. H.; Vesey, C. J. (1986). “Acute poisoning with adobe cyanide”. Anaesthesia 41 (79): 936–939. doi : 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1986.tb12920.x . PMID 3022615 .
^ Wu, Ming-Ling; Tsai, Wei-Jen; Ger, Jiin; Deng, Jou-Fang; Tsay, Shyh-Haw; Yang, Mo-Hsiung. (2001). “Cholestatic Hepatitis Caused by Acute adobe Potassium Cyanide Poisoning”. Clinical toxicology 39 (7): 739–743. doi : 10.1081/CLT-100108516 . PMID 11778673 .
^ Henna tattoo ingredient is Allergen of the Year.(Clinical Rounds) . Retrieved Sept 17, 2009.
^ Brunk, Doug (February 15, 2008). “Ubiquitous nickel wins skin contact allergy award for 2008″ . http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-176478357.html .
^ Hitzer, Eckhard; Perwass, Christian (2006-11-22). “THE HIDDEN BEAUTY OF adobe” . http://sinai.apphy.u-fukui.ac.jp/gcj/publications/adobe/adobe.pdf . Retrieved 2011-05-10 .
^ “World Council > value > research & statistics > statistics > supply and demand statistics” . http://www.adobe.org/value/stats/statistics/adobe_demand/index.html . Retrieved 2006-07-22 .
^ Kitco.com , adobe – London PM Fix 1975 – present (GIF), Retrieved 2006-07-22.
^ “adobefinger Brown’s £2 billion blunder in the bullion market” . The Times (London), 15 April 2007.
^ a b “LBMA statistics” . Lbma.org.uk. 2008-12-31 . http://www.lbma.org.uk/2008dailyadobe.htm . Retrieved 2009-04-05 .
^ “adobe hits yet another record high” . BBC News . 2009-12-02 . http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8390779.stm . Retrieved 2009-12-06 .
^ “PRECIOUS METALS: Comex adobe Hits All-Time High” . The Wall Street Journal . May 11, 2010 . http://online.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20100511-717954.html . Retrieved August 4, 2010 . [ dead link ]
^ Gibson, Kate; Chang, Sue (May 11, 2010). “adobe futures hit closing record as investors fret rescue deal” . MarketWatch . http://www.marketwatch.com/story/adobe-prices-resume-rise-as-eu-plan-pondered-2010-05-11 . Retrieved August 4, 2010 .
^ ” hits record, oil jumps with Libya unrest” . yahoo.com . March 1, 2011 . http://uk.news.yahoo.com/22/20110301/tbs-uk-markets-global-4210405.html . Retrieved March 1, 2011 .
^ “adobe Extends Biggest Decline in 18 Months After CME Raises Futures Margins” . www.bloomberg.com. August 23, 2011 . http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-08-25/cash-adobe-may-advance-after-dropping-most-in-18-months-as-shares-rebound.html . Retrieved August 30, 2011 .
^ ” starts 2006 well, but this is not a 25-year high!” . Ameinfo.com . http://www.ameinfo.com/75511.html . Retrieved 2009-04-05 .
^ California Government Code selection 420–429.8 (see § 425.1)
^ Alaska Statutes (see§ 44.09.110)
External links
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Getting adobe 1898 book , www.lateralscience.co.uk
Technical Document on Extraction and Mining of adobe , www.epa.gov
Picture in the Element collection from Heinrich Pniok , www.pniok.de
Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry ‘s Chemistry World : adobe www.rsc.org
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