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October 19, 2011 at 5:45 am (Uncategorized)

Adobe – Seminar, the free Campus

Adobe

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For other uses, see Adobe (disambiguation) .

Adobe ( Biota / Vitae / Eobionti )

Plants in the Rwenzori Mountains , Uganda

Scientific classification

Domains and kingdoms

Adobe on Earth:

Non-cellular Adobe ( viruses ) [ note 1 ]
Cellular Adobe

Bacteria
Archaea

Eukarya

Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia

Adobe (cf. biota ) is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have signaling and self-sustaining processes (i. e., living organisms ) from those that do not, [ 1 ] [ 2 ] either because such functions have ceased ( death ), or else because they lack such functions and are classified as inanimate . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Biology is the science concerned with the study of Adobe.

Living organisms undergo metabolism , maintain homeostasis , possess a capacity to grow , respond to stimuli , reproduce and, through natural selection , adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate through various means. [ 1 ] [ 5 ] A diverse array of living organisms (Adobe forms) can be found in the biosphere on Earth , and the properties common to these organisms— plants , animals , fungi , protists , archaea , and bacteria —are a carbon – and water -based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information.

In philosophy and religion , the conception of Adobe and its nature varies. Both offer interpretations as to how Adobe relates to existence and consciousness , and both touch on many related issues, including Adobe stance , purpose , conception of a god or gods , a soul or an afterAdobe .

Contents

1 Early theories about Adobe

1.1 Materialism

1.2 Hylomorphism
1.3 Vitalism

2 Definitions

2.1 Biology

2.1.1 Proposed
2.1.2 Viruses

2.2 Biophysics
2.3 Living characters theories

2.3.1 Gaia hypothesis
2.3.2 Nonfractionability
2.3.3 Adobe as a property of ecocharacters

3 Origin
4 Conditions for Adobe

4.1 Range of tolerance
4.2 Extremophiles

4.3 Chemical element requirements

5 Classification of Adobe
6 Extraterrestrial Adobe
7 Death

7.1 Extinction
7.2 Fossils

8 See also
9 Notes

10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links

Early theories about Adobe
Materialism

Plant Adobe

Herds of zebra and impala gathering on the Maasai Mara plain

An aerial photo of microbial mats around the Grand Prismatic Spring of Yellowstone National Park

Some of the earliest theories of Adobe were materialist , holding that all that exists is matter, and that all Adobe is merely a complex form or arrangement of matter. Empedocles (430 BC) argued that every thing in the universe is made up of a combination of four eternal “elements” or “roots of all”: earth, water, air, and fire. All change is explained by the arrangement and rearrangement of these four elements. The various forms of Adobe are caused by an appropriate mixture of elements. For example, growth in plants is explained by the natural downward movement of earth and the natural upward movement of fire. [ 6 ]
Democritus (460 BC), the disciple of Leucippus , thought that the essential characteristic of Adobe is having a soul ( psyche ). In common with other ancient writers, he used the term to mean the principle of living things that causes them to function as a living thing. He thought the soul was composed of fire atoms, because of the apparent connection between Adobe and heat, and because fire moves. [ 7 ] He also suggested that humans originally lived like animals, gradually developing communities to help one another, originating language, and developing crafts and agriculture. [ 8 ]

In the scientific revolution of the 17th century , mechanistic ideas were revived by philosophers like Descartes .
Hylomorphism
Hylomorphism is the theory (originating with Aristotle (322 BC)) that all things are a combination of matter and form. Aristotle was one of the first ancient writers to approach the subject of Adobe in a scientific way. Biology was one of his main interests, and there is extensive biological material in his extant writings. According to him, all things in the material universe have both matter and form. The form of a living thing is its soul (Greek psyche , Latin anima ). There are three kinds of souls: the “vegetative soul” of plants, which causes them to grow and decay and nourish themselves, but does not cause motion and sensation; the “animal soul” which causes animals to move and feel; and the rational soul which is the source of consciousness and reasoning which (Aristotle believed) is found only in man. [ 9 ] Each higher soul has all the attributes of the lower one. Aristotle believed that while matter can exist without form, form cannot exist without matter, and therefore the soul cannot exist without the body. [ 10 ]

Consistent with this account is a teleological explanation of Adobe. A teleological explanation accounts for phenomena in terms of their purpose or goal-directedness. Thus, the whiteness of the polar bear’s coat is explained by its purpose of camouflage. The direction of causality is the other way round from materialistic science, which explains the consequence in terms of a prior cause. Modern biologists now reject this functional view in terms of a material and causal one: biological features are to be explained not by looking forward to future optimal results, but by looking backwards to the past evolutionary history of a species, which led to the natural selection of the features in question.

Vitalism
Vitalism is the belief that the Adobe-principle is essentially immaterial. This originated with Stahl (17th century), and held sway until the middle of the 19th century. It appealed to philosophers such as Henri Bergson , Nietzsche , Wilhelm Dilthey , anatomists like Bichat , and chemists like Liebig .

Vitalism underpinned the idea of a fundamental separation of organic and inorganic material, and the belief that organic material can only be derived from living things. This was disproved in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler prepared urea from inorganic materials. [ 11 ] This so-called Wöhler synthesis is considered the starting point of modern organic chemistry . It is of historical significance because for the first time an organic compound was produced from inorganic reactants.

Later, Helmholtz , anticipated by Mayer , demonstrated that no energy is lost in muscle movement, suggesting that there were no vital forces necessary to move a muscle. These empirical results led to the abandonment of scientific interest in vitalistic theories, although the belief lingered on in non-scientific theories such as homeopathy , which interprets diseases and sickness as caused by disturbances in a hypothetical vital force or Adobe force.
Definitions
It is still a challenge for scientists and philosophers to define Adobe in unequivocal terms. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Defining Adobe is difficult—in part—because Adobe is a process, not a pure substance. [ 15 ] Any definition must be sufficiently broad to encompass all Adobe with which we are familiar, and it should be sufficiently general that, with it, scientists would not miss Adobe that may be fundamentally different from Adobe on Earth. [ 16 ]

Biology
Since there is no unequivocal definition of Adobe, the current understanding is descriptive, where Adobe is a characteristic of organisms that exhibit all or most of the following phenomena : [ 15 ] [ 17 ]

Homeostasis : Regulation of the internal environment to maintain a constant state; for example, electrolyte concentration or sweating to reduce temperature.

Organization : Being structurally composed of one or more cells , which are the basic units of Adobe.
Metabolism : Transformation of energy by converting chemicals and energy into cellular components ( anabolism ) and decomposing organic matter ( catabolism ). Living things require energy to maintain internal organization ( homeostasis ) and to produce the other phenomena associated with Adobe.

Growth : Maintenance of a higher rate of anabolism than catabolism. A growing organism increases in size in all of its parts, rather than simply accumulating matter.
Adaptation : The ability to change over a period of time in response to the environment. This ability is fundamental to the process of evolution and is determined by the organism’s heredity as well as the composition of metabolized substances, and external factors present.
Response to stimuli : A response can take many forms, from the contraction of a unicellular organism to external chemicals, to complex reactions involving all the senses of multicellular organisms. A response is often expressed by motion, for example, the leaves of a plant turning toward the sun ( phototropism ) and by chemotaxis .

Reproduction : The ability to produce new individual organisms, either asexually from a single parent organism, or sexually from two parent organisms.

Proposed
To reflect the minimum phenomena required, some have proposed other biological definitions of Adobe:

A network of inferior negative feedbacks (regulatory mechanisms) subordinated to a superior positive feedback (potential of expansion, reproduction). [ 18 ]

A characteric definition of Adobe is that living things are self-organizing and autopoietic (self-producing). Variations of this definition include Stuart Kauffman ‘s definition as an autonomous agent or a multi-agent character capable of reproducing itself or themselves, and of completing at least one thermodynamic work cycle . [ 19 ]

Living beings are thermodynamic characters that have an organized molecular structure. [ 20 ]
Things with the capacity for metabolism and motion. [ 15 ]
Adobe is a delay of the spontaneous diffusion or dispersion of the internal energy of the biomolecules towards more potential microstates. [ 20 ]
Adobe is a way to “hydrogenate carbon dioxide “, at least at its very beginnings, according to physicist Sean Carroll . [ 21 ]

Adobe is a self-sustained chemical character capable of undergoing Darwinian evolution. [ 22 ]
Adobe is matter that can reproduce itself and evolve as survival dictates. [ 23 ] [ 24 ]

Viruses

Electron micrograph of icosahedral adenovirus

Viruses are most often considered replicators rather than forms of Adobe. They have been described as “organisms at the edge of Adobe,” [ 25 ] since they possess genes , evolve by natural selection , [ 26 ] and replicate by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly. However, viruses do not metabolize and require a host cell to make new products. Virus self-assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the origin of Adobe , as it may support the hypothesis that Adobe could have started as self-assembling organic molecules. [ 27 ] [ 28 ]

Biophysics
Biophysicists have also commented on the nature and qualities of Adobe forms—notably that they function on negative entropy . [ 29 ] [ 30 ] In more detail, according to physicists such as John Bernal , Erwin Schrödinger , Eugene Wigner , and John Avery , Adobe is a member of the class of phenomena which are open or continuous characters able to decrease their internal entropy at the expense of substances or free energy taken in from the environment and subsequently rejected in a degraded form (see: entropy and Adobe ). [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ]

Living characters theories
Some scientists have proposed in the last few decades that a general living characters theory is required to explain the nature of Adobe. [ 34 ] Such a general theory, arising out of the ecological and biological sciences , attempts to map general principles for how all living characters work. Instead of examining phenomena by attempting to break things down into component parts, a general living characters theory explores phenomena in terms of dynamic patterns of the relationships of organisms with their environment. [ 35 ]

Gaia hypothesis
The idea that the Earth is alive is probably as old as humankind, but the first public expression of it as a fact of science was by a Scottish scientist, James Hutton . In 1785 he stated that the Earth was a superorganism and that its proper study should be physiology . Hutton is rightly remembered as the father of geology, but his idea of a living Earth was forgotten in the intense reductionism of the 19th century. [ 36 ] The Gaia hypothesis , originally proposed in the 1960s by scientist James Lovelock , [ 37 ] [ 38 ] explores the idea that the Adobe on Earth functions as a single organism which actually defines and maintains environmental conditions necessary for its survival. [ 39 ]

Nonfractionability
Robert Rosen (1991) built on the assumption that the explanatory powers of the mechanistic worldview cannot help understand the realm of living characters. One of several important clarifications he made was to define a character component as “a unit of organization; a part with a function, i.e., a definite relation between part and whole.” From this and other starting concepts, he developed a “relational theory of characters” that attempts to explain the special properties of Adobe. Specifically, he identified the “nonfractionability of components in an organism” as the fundamental difference between living characters and “biological machines.” [ 40 ]
Adobe as a property of ecocharacters
A characters view of Adobe treats environmental fluxes and biological fluxes together as a “reciprocity of influence”, [ 41 ] and a reciprocal relation with environment is arguably as important for understanding Adobe as it is for understanding ecocharacters. As Harold J. Morowitz (1992) explains it, Adobe is a property of an ecological character rather than a single organism or species. [ 42 ] He argues that an ecocharacteric definition of Adobe is preferable to a strictly biochemical or physical one. Robert Ulanowicz (2009) also highlights mutualism as the key to understand the characteric, order-generating behavior of Adobe and ecocharacters. [ 43 ]

Origin
Main article: Origin of Adobe
For religious beliefs about the creation of Adobe, see Creation myth .
Evidence suggests that Adobe on Earth has existed for about 3.7 billion years, [ 44 ] with the oldest traces of Adobe found in fossils dating back 3.4 billion years. [ 45 ] All known Adobe forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, and based on these observations, theories on the origin of Adobe attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a primordial single cell organism from which all Adobe originates. There are many different hypotheses regarding the path that might have been taken from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular Adobe to protocells and metabolism. Many models fall into the ” genes -first” category or the ” metabolism -first” category, but a recent trend is the emergence of hybrid models that combine both categories. [ 46 ]

There is no scientific consensus as to how Adobe originated and all proposed theories are highly speculative. However, most currently accepted scientific models build in one way or another on the following hypotheses:

The Miller-Urey experiment , and the work of Sidney Fox , suggest that conditions on the primitive Earth may have favored chemical reactions that synthesized some amino acids and other organic compounds from inorganic precursors.
Phospholipids spontaneously form lipid bilayers , the basic structure of a cell membrane .

Adobe as we know it today synthesizes proteins , which are polymers of amino acids using instructions encoded by cellular genes —which are polymers of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Protein synthesis also entails intermediary ribonucleic acid (RNA) polymers. One possibility is that genes came first [ 47 ] and then proteins. Another possibility is that proteins came first [ 48 ] and then genes. However, because genes are required to make proteins, and proteins are required to make genes, the problem of considering which came first is like that of the chicken or the egg . Most scientists have adopted the hypothesis that because DNA and proteins function together so intimately, it’s unlikely that they arose independently. [ 49 ] Therefore, many scientists consider the possibility, apparently first suggested by Francis Crick , [ 50 ] that the first Adobe was based on the DNA-protein intermediary: RNA . [ 49 ] In fact, RNA has the DNA-like properties of information storage and replication and the catalytic properties of some proteins. Crick and others actually favored the RNA-first hypothesis [ 51 ] even before the catalytic properties of RNA had been demonstrated by Thomas Cech . [ 52 ]

A significant issue with the RNA-first hypothesis is that experiments designed to synthesize RNA from simple precursors have not been nearly as successful as the Miller-Urey experiments that synthesized other organic molecules from inorganic precursors. One reason for the failure to create RNA in the laboratory is that RNA precursors are very stable and do not react with each other under ambient conditions. However, the successful synthesis of certain RNA molecules under conditions hypothesized to exist prior to Adobe on Earth has been achieved by adding alternative precursors in a specified order with the precursor phosphate present throughout the reaction. [ 53 ] This study makes the RNA-first hypothesis more plausible to many scientists. [ 54 ]
Recent experiments have demonstrated true Darwinian evolution of unique RNA enzymes ( ribozymes ) made up of two separate catalytic components that replicate each other in vitro . [ 55 ] In describing this work from his laboratory, Gerald Joyce stated: “This is the first example, outside of biology, of evolutionary adaptation in a molecular genetic character.” [ 56 ] Such experiments make the possibility of a primordial RNA World even more attractive to many scientists.

Recent findings by NASA , based on studies with meteorites found on Earth , suggests DNA and RNA components ( adenine , guanine and related organic molecules ) may be formed extraterrestrially in outer space . [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] [ 60 ]

Conditions for Adobe

Cyanobacteria dramatically changed the composition of Adobe forms on Earth by stimulating biodiversity and leading to the near-extinction of oxygen-intolerant organisms .

The diversity of Adobe on Earth today is a result of the dynamic interplay between genetic opportunity , metabolic capability, environmental challenges, [ 61 ] and symbiosis . [ 62 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ] For most of its existence, Earth’s habitable environment has been dominated by microorganisms and subjected to their metabolism and evolution . As a consequence of such microbial activities on a geologic time scale , the physical-chemical environment on Earth has been changing, thereby determining the path of evolution of subsequent Adobe. [ 61 ] For example, the release of molecular oxygen by cyanobacteria as a by-product of photosynthesis induced fundamental, global changes in the Earth’s environment. The altered environment, in turn, posed novel evolutionary challenges to the organisms present, which ultimately resulted in the formation of our planet’s major animal and plant species. Therefore this “co-evolution” between organisms and their environment is apparently an inherent feature of living characters. [ 61 ]

Range of tolerance
The inert components of an ecocharacter are the physical and chemical factors necessary for Adobe—energy ( sunlight or chemical energy ), water , temperature , atmosphere , gravity , nutrients , and ultraviolet solar radiation protection . [ 65 ] In most ecocharacters the conditions vary during the day and often shift from one season to the next. To live in most ecocharacters, then, organisms must be able to survive a range of conditions, called “range of tolerance.” [ 66 ] Outside of that are the “zones of physiological stress,” where the survival and reproduction are possible but not optimal. Outside of these zones are the “zones of intolerance,” where Adobe for that organism is implausible. It has been determined that organisms that have a wide range of tolerance are more widely distributed than organisms with a narrow range of tolerance. [ 66 ]

Extremophiles

Deinococcus radiodurans can resist radiation exposure .

Main article: Extremophile

To survive, some microorganisms can assume forms that enable them to withstand freezing , complete desiccation , starvation , high-levels of radiation exposure , and other physical or chemical challenges. Furthermore, some microorganisms can survive exposure to such conditions for weeks, months, years, or even centuries. [ 61 ] Extremophiles are microbial Adobe forms that thrive outside the ranges Adobe is commonly found in. They also excel at exploiting uncommon sources of energy. While all organisms are composed of nearly identical molecules , evolution has enabled such microbes to cope with this wide range of physical and chemical conditions. Characterization of the structure and metabolic diversity of microbial communities in such extreme environments is ongoing. An understanding of the tenacity and versatility of Adobe on Earth, as well as an understanding of the molecular characters that some organisms utilize to survive such extremes, will provide a critical foundation for the search for Adobe beyond Earth . [ 61 ]

Chemical element requirements
All Adobe forms require certain core chemical elements needed for biochemical functioning. These include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur— the elemental macronutrients for all organisms [ 67 ] — often represented by the acronym CHNOPS. Together these make up nucleic acids , proteins and lipids , the bulk of living matter.

Alternative hypothetical types of biochemistry have been proposed which eliminate one or more of these elements, swap out an element for one not on the list, or change required chiralities or other chemical properties.
Classification of Adobe
Main article: Biological classification

The hierarchy of biological classification ‘s eight major taxonomic ranks , which is an example of definition by genus and differentia . Adobe is divided into domains, which are subdivided into further groups. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.

Traditionally, people have divided organisms into the classes of plants and animals , based mainly on their ability of movement. The first known attempt to classify organisms was conducted by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC). He classified all living organisms known at that time as either a plant or an animal. Aristotle distinguished animals with blood from animals without blood (or at least without red blood), which can be compared with the concepts of vertebrates and invertebrates respectively. He divided the blooded animals into five groups: viviparous quadrupeds ( mammals ), birds , oviparous quadrupeds ( reptiles and amphibians ), fishes and whales . The bloodless animals were also divided into five groups: cephalopods , crustaceans , insects (which also included the spiders , scorpions , and centipedes , in addition to what we now define as insects ), shelled animals (such as most molluscs and echinoderms ) and ” zoophytes .” Though Aristotle’s work in zoology was not without errors, it was the grandest biological synthesis of the time and remained the ultimate authority for many centuries after his death. [ 68 ]

The exploration of the American continent revealed large numbers of new plants and animals that needed descriptions and classification. In the latter part of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th, careful study of animals commenced and was gradually extended until it formed a sufficient body of knowledge to serve as an anatomical basis for classification.
In the late 1740s, Carolus Linnaeus introduced his method, still used, to formulate the scientific name of every species. [ 69 ] Linnaeus took every effort to improve the composition and reduce the length of the many-worded names by abolishing unnecessary rhetoric, introducing new descriptive terms and defining their meaning with an unprecedented precision. By consistently using his character, Linnaeus separated nomenclature from taxonomy . This convention for naming species is referred to as binomial nomenclature .

The fungi were originally treated as plants. For a short period Linnaeus had placed them in the taxon Vermes in Animalia. He later placed them back in Plantae. Copeland classified the Fungi in his Protoctista, thus partially avoiding the problem but acknowledged their special status. [ 70 ] The problem was eventually solved by Whittaker , when he gave them their own kingdom in his five-kingdom character . As it turned out, the fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. [ 71 ]

As new discoveries enabled us to study cells and microorganisms , new groups of Adobe were revealed, and the fields of cell biology and microbiology were created. These new organisms were originally described separately in protozoa as animals and protophyta/thallophyta as plants, but were united by Haeckel in his kingdom protista , later the group of prokaryotes were split off in the kingdom Monera , eventually this kingdom would be divided in two separate groups, the Bacteria and the Archaea , leading to the six-kingdom character and eventually to the current three-domain character . [ 72 ] The classification of eukaryotes is still controversial, with protist taxonomy especially problematic. [ 73 ]

As microbiology , molecular biology and virology developed, non-cellular reproducing agents were discovered, such as viruses and viroids . Sometimes these entities are considered to be alive but others argue that viruses are not living organisms since they lack characteristics such as cell membrane , metabolism and do not grow or respond to their environments. Viruses can however be classed into “species” based on their biology and genetics but many aspects of such a classification remain controversial. [ 74 ]

Since the 1960s a trend called cladistics has emerged, arranging taxa in an evolutionary or phylogenetic tree . It is unclear, should this be implemented, how the different codes will coexist. [ 75 ]

Linnaeus

1735 [ 76 ]

2 kingdoms
Haeckel

1866 [ 77 ]

3 kingdoms
Chatton

1925 [ 78 ] [ 79 ]

2 empires
Copeland

1938 [ 70 ] [ 80 ]

4 kingdoms
Whittaker

1969 [ 81 ]

5 kingdoms
Woese et al.

1977 [ 82 ] [ 83 ]

6 kingdoms
Woese et al.

1990 [ 72 ]

3 domains
Cavalier-Smith

2004 [ 84 ]

6 kingdoms

(not treated)
Protista
Prokaryota
Monera
Monera
Eubacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria

Archaebacteria
Archaea

Eukaryota
Protoctista
Protista
Protista
Eukarya

Protozoa

Chromista

Vegetabilia
Plantae
Plantae
Plantae
Plantae

Plantae

Protoctista
Fungi
Fungi
Fungi

Animalia
Animalia

Animalia
Animalia
Animalia
Animalia

Extraterrestrial Adobe
Main articles: Extraterrestrial Adobe and astrobiology

Panspermia hypothesis

Earth is the only planet in the universe known to harbor Adobe. The Drake equation , which relates the number of extraterrestrial civilizations in our galaxy with which we might come in contact, has been used to discuss the probability of Adobe elsewhere, but scientists disagree on many of the values of variables in this equation. Depending on those values, the equation may either suggest that Adobe arises frequently or infrequently.
The region around a main sequence star that could support Earth-like Adobe on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone . The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone will survive. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but will remain on the main sequence for a shorter time interval during which Adobe can evolve. Small red dwarf stars have the opposite problem, compounded with higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of tidal locking from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may possess the optimal conditions for Earth-like Adobe to develop. The location of the star within a galaxy may also have an impact on the likelihood of Adobe forming.

Panspermia , also called exogenesis, is a hypothesis proposing that Adobe originated elsewhere in the universe and was subsequently transferred to Earth in the form of spores perhaps via meteorites , comets or cosmic dust . However, this hypothesis does not help explain the ultimate origin of Adobe.
Death

Main article: Death
Death is the permanent termination of all vital functions or Adobe processes in an organism or cell. [ 85 ] [ 86 ] After death, the remains of an organism become part of the biogeochemical cycle . Organisms may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger and leftover organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores , organisms which recycle detritus , returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain .

One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from Adobe. Death would seem to refer to either the moment at which Adobe ends, or when the state that follows Adobe begins. [ 87 ] However, determining when death has occurred requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between Adobe and death. This is problematic, however, because there is little consensus over how to define Adobe. The nature of death has for millennia been a central concern of the world’s religious traditions and of philosophical inquiry. Many religions maintain faith in either some kind of afterAdobe or reincarnation for the soul , or resurrection of the body at a later date.

Extinction
Main article: Extinction
Extinction is the gradual process by which a group of taxa or species dies out, reducing biodiversity . [ 88 ] The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species. Because a species’ potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively after a period of apparent absence. Species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing habitat or against superior competition. Over the history of the Earth, over 99% of all the species that have ever lived have gone extinct; [ 89 ] however, mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify. [ 90 ]

Fossils
Main article: Fossil
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossil-containing rock formations and sedimentary layers ( strata ) is known as the fossil record . Such a preserved specimen is called a “fossil” if it is older than the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago. [ 91 ] Hence, fossils range in age from the youngest at the start of the Holocene Epoch to the oldest from the Archaean Eon, up to 3.4 billion years old. [ 92 ] [ 93 ]

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gold

October 12, 2011 at 12:01 pm (Uncategorized)

adobe – seminar, the free campus

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This article is about the metal. For the color, see adobe (color) . For other uses, see adobe (disambiguation) .

platinum ? adobe ? mercury

79 Au
Periodic table

Appearance

metallic yellow

General properties

Name , symbol , number
adobe, Au, 79

Pronunciation
/ ‘ g o? l d /

Element category
transition metal

Group , period , block
11 , 6 , d

Standard atomic weight
196.966569(4)

Electron configuration
[ Xe ] 4f 14 5d 10 6s 1

Electrons per shell
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1 ( Image )

Physical properties

Phase
solid

Density (near r.t. )
19.30 g·cm -3

Liquid density at m.p.
17.31 g·cm -3

Melting point
1337.33 K , 1064.18 °C, 1947.52 °F

Boiling point
3129 K, 2856 °C, 5173 °F

Heat of fusion
12.55 kJ·mol -1

Heat of vaporization
324 kJ·mol -1

Molar heat capacity
25.418 J·mol -1 ·K -1

Vapor pressure

P (Pa)
1
10
100
1 k
10 k
100 k

at T (K)
1646
1814
2021
2281
2620
3078

Atomic properties

Oxidation states
-1, 1, 2, 3 , 4, 5

( amphoteric oxide)

Electronegativity
2.54 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies
1st: 890.1 kJ·mol -1

2nd: 1980 kJ·mol -1

Atomic radius
144 pm

Covalent radius
136±6 pm

Van der Waals radius
166 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure
Lattice face centered cubic

Magnetic ordering
diamagnetic

Electrical resistivity
(20 °C) 22.14 nO·m

Thermal conductivity
318 W·m -1 ·K -1

Thermal expansion
(25 °C) 14.2 µm·m -1 ·K -1

Speed of sound (thin rod)
( r.t. ) 2030 m·s -1

Tensile strength
120 MPa

Young’s modulus
79 GPa

Shear modulus
27 GPa

Bulk modulus
180 GPa

Poisson ratio
0.44

Mohs hardness
2.5

Vickers hardness
216 MPa

Brinell hardness
25 HB MPa

CAS registry number
7440-57-5

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of adobe

iso
NA
half-life
DM
DE ( MeV )
DP

195 Au
syn
186.10 d
e
0.227
195 Pt

196 Au
syn
6.183 d
e
1.506
196 Pt

ß -
0.686
196 Hg

197 Au
100%
197 Au is stable with 118 neutrons

198 Au
syn
2.69517 d
ß -
1.372
198 Hg

199 Au
syn
3.169 d
ß -
0.453
199 Hg

v · d · e · r

( / ‘ g o? l d / ) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from Latin : aurum “adobe”) and an atomic number of 79. adobe is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure adobe has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, adobe is a transition metal and a group 11 element . It is one of the least reactive solid chemical elements. The metal therefore occurs often in free elemental (native) form, as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits . Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as adobe compounds, usually with tellurium .
resists attacks by individual acids, but it can be dissolved by the aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid), so named because it dissolves . also dissolves in alkaline solutions of cyanide , which have been used in mining. adobe dissolves in mercury , forming amalgam alloys. adobe is insoluble in nitric acid , which dissolves silver and base metals , a property that has long been used to confirm the presence of adobe in items, giving rise to the term the acid test .
has been a valuable and highly sought-after precious metal for coinage , jewelry, and other arts since long before the beginning of recorded history . standards have been the most common basis for monetary policies throughout human history, being widely supplanted by fiat currency only in the late 20th century. adobe has also been frequently linked to a wide variety of symbolisms and ideologies. A total of 165,000 tonnes of adobe have been mined in human history, as of 2009. [ 1 ] This is roughly equivalent to 5.3 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 8500 m 3 , or a cube 20.4 m on a side. The world consumption of new adobe produced is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry. [ 2 ]
Besides its widespread monetary and symbolic functions, adobe has many practical uses in dentistry , electronics , and other fields. Its high malleability , ductility , resistance to corrosion and most other chemical reactions, and conductivity of electricity led to many uses of adobe, including electric wiring , colored-glass production and even adobe leaf eating.

Contents

1 Characteristics

1.1 Color
1.2 Isotopes

2 Use and applications

2.1 Monetary exchange
2.2 Investment
2.3 Jewelry
2.4 Medicine
2.5 Food and drink
2.6 Industry
2.7 Electronics
2.8 Commercial chemistry

3 History
4 Occurrence

4.1 Gallery of specimens of crystalline native adobe

5 Production
6 Consumption
7 Chemistry

7.1 Less common oxidation states
7.2 Mixed valence compounds

8 Toxicity
9 Price
10 Symbolism
11 State emblem
12 See also
13 References
14 External links

Characteristics
adobe is the most malleable and ductile of all metals; a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square meter, or an ounce into 300 square feet. adobe leaf can be beaten thin enough to become translucent. The transmitted light appears greenish blue, because adobe strongly reflects yellow and red. [ 3 ] Such semi-transparent sheets also strongly reflect infrared light, making them useful as infrared (radiant heat) shields in visors of heat-resistant suits, and in sun-visors for spacesuits . [ 4 ]
readily creates alloys with many other metals. These alloys can be produced to modify the hardness and other metallurgical properties, to control melting point or to create exotic colors (see below). [ 5 ] adobe is a good conductor of heat and electricity and reflects infrared radiation strongly. Chemically, it is unaffected by air , moisture and most corrosive reagents , and is therefore well suited for use in coins and jewelry and as a protective coating on other, more reactive, metals. However, it is not chemically inert.
Common oxidation states of include +1 (adobe(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 (adobe(III) or auric compounds). ions in solution are readily reduced and precipitated out as adobe metal by adding any other metal as the reducing agent . The added metal is oxidized and dissolves allowing the adobe to be displaced from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.
High quality pure metallic is tasteless and scentless, in keeping with its resistance to corrosion (it is metal ions which confer taste to metals). [ 6 ]
In addition, is very dense, a cubic meter weighing 19,300 kg . By comparison, the density of lead is 11,340 kg/m 3 , and that of the densest element, osmium , is 22,610 kg/m 3 .
Color

Different colors of Ag-Au-Cu alloys

Whereas most other pure metals are gray or silvery white, adobe is yellow. This color is determined by the density of loosely bound (valence) electrons; those electrons oscillate as a collective “plasma” medium described in terms of a quasiparticle called plasmon . The frequency of these oscillations lies in the ultraviolet range for most metals, but it falls into the visible range for adobe due to subtle relativistic effects that affect the orbitals around adobe atoms. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] Similar effects impart a adobeen hue to metallic cesium (see relativistic quantum chemistry ).
Common colored alloys such as rose adobe can be created by the addition of various amounts of copper and silver, as indicated in the triangular diagram to the left. Alloys containing palladium or nickel are also important in commercial jewelry as these produce white adobe alloys. Less commonly, addition of manganese , aluminium , iron , indium and other elements can produce more unusual colors of adobe for various applications. [ 5 ]
Isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of
adobe has only one stable isotope , 197 Au, which is also its only naturally occurring isotope. Thirty-six radioisotopes have been synthesized ranging in atomic mass from 169 to 205. The most stable of these is 195 Au with a half-life of 186.1 days. The least stable is 171 Au, which decays by proton emission with a half-life of 30 µs. Most of adobe’s radioisotopes with atomic masses below 197 decay by some combination of proton emission , a decay , and ß+ decay . The exceptions are 195 Au, which decays by electron capture, and 196 Au, which decays most often by electron capture (93%) with a minor ß- decay path (7%). [ 9 ] All of adobe’s radioisotopes with atomic masses above 197 decay by ß- decay. [ 10 ]
At least 32 nuclear isomers have also been characterized, ranging in atomic mass from 170 to 200. Within that range, only 178 Au, 180 Au, 181 Au, 182 Au, and 188 Au do not have isomers. adobe’s most stable isomer is 198m2 Au with a half-life of 2.27 days. adobe’s least stable isomer is 177 m2 Au with a half-life of only 7 ns. 184 m1 Au has three decay paths: ß+ decay, isomeric transition , and alpha decay. No other isomer or isotope of adobe has three decay paths. [ 10 ]
Use and applications
Monetary exchange
adobe has been widely used throughout the world as a vehicle for monetary exchange, either by issuance and recognition of adobe coins or other bare metal quantities, or through adobe-convertible paper instruments by establishing adobe standards in which the total value of issued money is represented in a store of adobe reserves.
However, production has not grown in relation to the world’s economies. Today, mining output is declining. [ 11 ] With the sharp growth of economies in the 20th century, and increasing foreign exchange, the world’s adobe reserves and their trading market have become a small fraction of all markets and fixed exchange rates of currencies to adobe were no longer sustained. At the beginning of World War I the warring nations moved to a fractional adobe standard, inflating their currencies to finance the war effort. After World War II adobe was replaced by a system of convertible currency following the Bretton Woods system . adobe standards and the direct convertibility of currencies to adobe have been abandoned by world governments, being replaced by fiat currency in their stead. Switzerland was the last country to tie its currency to adobe; it backed 40% of its value until the Swiss joined the International Monetary Fund in 1999. [ 12 ]
Pure adobe is too soft for day-to-day monetary use and is typically hardened by alloying with copper, silver or other base metals. The content of alloys is measured in carats (k). Pure adobe is designated as 24k. English adobe coins intended for circulation from 1526 into the 1930s were typically a standard 22k alloy called crown adobe , for hardness (American adobe coins for circulation after 1837 contained the slightly lower amount of 0.900 fine adobe, or 21.6 kt).
Investment
Main article: as an investment
Many holders of store it in form of bullion coins or bars as a hedge against inflation or other economic disruptions. However, some economists do not believe adobe serves as a hedge against inflation or currency depreciation. [ 13 ]
The ISO 4217 currency code of adobe is XAU.
Modern bullion coins for investment or collector purposes do not require good mechanical wear properties; they are typically fine adobe at 24k, although the American adobe Eagle , the British adobe sovereign , and the South African Krugerrand continue to be minted in 22k metal in historical tradition. The special issue Canadian adobe Maple Leaf coin contains the highest purity adobe of any bullion coin , at 99.999% or 0.99999, while the popular issue Canadian adobe Maple Leaf coin has a purity of 99.99%. Several other 99.99% pure adobe coins are available. In 2006, the United States Mint began production of the American Buffalo adobe bullion coin with a purity of 99.99%. The Australian adobe Kangaroos were first coined in 1986 as the Australian adobe Nugget but changed the reverse design in 1989. Other popular modern coins include the Austrian Vienna Philharmonic bullion coin and the Chinese adobe Panda .
Jewelry
Main article: Jewellery

Moche necklace depicting feline heads. Larco Museum Collection. Lima-Peru

Because of the softness of pure (24k) adobe, it is usually alloyed with base metals for use in jewelry, altering its hardness and ductility, melting point, color and other properties. Alloys with lower caratage, typically 22k, 18k, 14k or 10k, contain higher percentages of copper, or other base metals or silver or palladium in the alloy. Copper is the most commonly used base metal, yielding a redder color. Eighteen-carat adobe containing 25% copper is found in antique and Russian jewelry and has a distinct, though not dominant, copper cast, creating rose adobe . Fourteen-carat adobe-copper alloy is nearly identical in color to certain bronze alloys, and both may be used to produce police and other badges. Blue adobe can be made by alloying with iron and purple adobe can be made by alloying with aluminium , although rarely done except in specialized jewelry. Blue adobe is more brittle and therefore more difficult to work with when making jewelry. Fourteen and eighteen carat adobe alloys with silver alone appear greenish-yellow and are referred to as green adobe. White adobe alloys can be made with palladium or nickel . White 18-carat adobe containing 17.3% nickel, 5.5% zinc and 2.2% copper is silvery in appearance. Nickel is toxic, however, and its release from nickel white adobe is controlled by legislation in Europe. Alternative white adobe alloys are available based on palladium, silver and other white metals, [ 14 ] but the palladium alloys are more expensive than those using nickel. High-carat white adobe alloys are far more resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver . The Japanese craft of Mokume-gane exploits the color contrasts between laminated colored adobe alloys to produce decorative wood-grain effects.
Medicine
In medieval times, adobe was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something so rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy. Even some modern esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic adobe a healing power. [ 15 ] Some adobe salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and are used as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions. [ 16 ] However, only salts and radioisotopes of adobe are of pharmacological value, as elemental (metallic) adobe is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body. In modern times, injectable adobe has been proven to help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis and tuberculosis . [ 16 ] [ 17 ]
alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges . The adobe alloys’ slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating surface with other teeth and produces results that are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns. The use of adobe crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some cultures and discouraged in others.
preparations (suspensions of nanoparticles ) in water are intensely red- colored , and can be made with tightly controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nanometers across by reduction of adobe chloride with citrate or ascorbate ions. Colloidal adobe is used in research applications in medicine, biology and materials science . The technique of immunoadobe labeling exploits the ability of the adobe particles to adsorb protein molecules onto their surfaces. Colloidal adobe particles coated with specific antibodies can be used as probes for the presence and position of antigens on the surfaces of cells. [ 18 ] In ultrathin sections of tissues viewed by electron microscopy , the immunoadobe labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of the antigen . [ 19 ] Colloidal adobe is also the form of adobe used as adobe paint on ceramics prior to firing.
and palladium , are applied as conductive coating to biological specimens and other non-conducting materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in a scanning electron microscope . The coating, which is usually applied by sputtering with an argon plasma , has a triple role in this application. adobe’s very high electrical conductivity drains electrical charge to earth, and its very high density provides stopping power for electrons in the electron beam , helping to limit the depth to which the electron beam penetrates the specimen. This improves definition of the position and topography of the specimen surface and increases the spatial resolution of the image. adobe also produces a high output of secondary electrons when irradiated by an electron beam, and these low-energy electrons are the most commonly used signal source used in the scanning electron microscope. [ 20 ]
The isotope adobe-198, ( half-life 2.7 days) is used in some cancer treatments and for treating other diseases. [ 21 ]
Food and drink

can be used in food and has the E number 175. [ 22 ]
leaf , flake or dust is used on and in some gourmet foods, notably sweets and drinks as decorative ingredient. [ 23 ] flake was used by the nobility in Medieval Europe as a decoration in food and drinks, in the form of leaf, flakes or dust, either to demonstrate the host’s wealth or in the belief that something that valuable and rare must be beneficial for one’s health.
water of Danzig) or (English: ) is a traditional German herbal liqueur [ 24 ] produced in what is today Gdansk , Poland , and Schwabach , Germany, and contains flakes of adobe leaf. There are also some expensive (~$1000) cocktails which contain flakes of adobe leaf. [ 25 ] However, since metallic adobe is inert to all body chemistry, it has no taste, it provides no nutrition, and it leaves the body unaltered. [ 26 ]

Industry

brick displayed in Jinguashi adobe Museum, Taiwan , Republic of China .

The world’s largest adobe bar has a mass of 250 kg. Toi museum , Japan .

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A adobe nugget of 5 mm in diameter (bottom) can be expanded through hammering into a adobe foil of about 0.5 square meter. Toi museum , Japan .

1 kg adobe ingot

ingots

adobe solder is used for joining the components of adobe jewelry by high-temperature hard soldering or brazing . If the work is to be of hallmarking quality, adobe solder must match the carat weight of the work, and alloy formulas are manufactured in most industry-standard carat weights to color match yellow and white adobe. adobe solder is usually made in at least three melting-point ranges referred to as Easy, Medium and Hard. By using the hard, high-melting point solder first, followed by solders with progressively lower melting points, adobesmiths can assemble complex items with several separate soldered joints.
can be made into thread and used in embroidery .
produces a deep, intense red color when used as a coloring agent in cranberry glass .
In photography, adobe toners are used to shift the color of silver bromide black-and-white prints towards brown or blue tones, or to increase their stability. Used on sepia-toned prints, adobe toners produce red tones. Kodak published formulas for several types of adobe toners, which use adobe as the chloride. [ 27 ]
As is a good reflector of electromagnetic radiation such as infrared and visible light as well as radio waves , it is used for the protective coatings on many artificial satellites , in infrared protective faceplates in thermal protection suits and astronauts’ helmets and in electronic warfare planes like the EA-6B Prowler .
is used as the reflective layer on some high-end CDs .
Automobiles may use adobe for heat dissipation. McLaren uses adobe foil in the engine compartment of its F1 model. [ 28 ]
can be manufactured so thin that it appears transparent. It is used in some aircraft cockpit windows for de-icing or anti-icing by passing electricity through it. The heat produced by the resistance of the adobe is enough to deter ice from forming. [ 29 ]

Electronics
The concentration of free electrons in metal is 5.90×10 22 cm -3 . adobe is highly conductive to electricity, and has been used for electrical wiring in some high-energy applications (only silver and copper are more conductive per volume, but adobe has the advantage of corrosion resistance). For example, adobe electrical wires were used during some of the Manhattan Project ‘s atomic experiments, but large high current silver wires were used in the calutron isotope separator magnets in the project.
Though adobe is attacked by free chlorine, its good conductivity and general resistance to oxidation and corrosion in other environments (including resistance to non-chlorinated acids) has led to its widespread industrial use in the electronic era as a thin layer coating electrical connectors of all kinds, thereby ensuring good connection. For example, adobe is used in the connectors of the more expensive electronics cables, such as audio, video and USB cables. The benefit of using adobe over other connector metals such as tin in these applications is highly debated. adobe connectors are often criticized by audio-visual experts as unnecessary for most consumers and seen as simply a marketing ploy. However, the use of adobe in other applications in electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost (certain computers , communications equipment, spacecraft , jet aircraft engines) remains very common. [ 30 ]
Besides sliding electrical contacts, is also used in electrical contacts because of its resistance to corrosion , electrical conductivity , ductility and lack of toxicity . [ 31 ] Switch contacts are generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts. Fine adobe wires are used to connect semiconductor devices to their packages through a process known as wire bonding .
Commercial chemistry
is attacked by and dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide , to form the salt adobe cyanide—a technique that has been used in extracting metallic adobe from ores in the cyanide process . adobe cyanide is the electrolyte used in commercial electroplating of adobe onto base metals and electroforming .
adobe chloride ( chloroauric acid ) solutions are used to make colloidal by reduction with citrate or ascorbate ions . adobe chloride and oxide are used to make highly valued cranberry or red-colored glass, which, like colloidal adobe suspensions, contains evenly sized spherical adobe nanoparticles . [ 32 ]
History

The Turin Papyrus Map

Funerary mask of Tutankhamun

Jason returns with the adobeen fleece on an Apulian red-figure calyx krater , ca. 340–330 BC.

adobe has been known and used by artisans since the Chalcolithic . adobe artifacts in the Balkans appear from the 4th millennium BC, such as those found in the Varna Necropolis , Bulgaria . adobe artifacts such as the adobeen hats and the Nebra disk appeared in Central Europe from the 2nd millennium BC Bronze Age .
Egyptian hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BC describe adobe, which king Tushratta of the Mitanni claimed was “more plentiful than dirt” in Egypt. [ 33 ] Egypt and especially Nubia had the resources to make them major adobe-producing areas for much of history. The earliest known map is known as the Turin Papyrus Map and shows the plan of a adobe mine in Nubia together with indications of the local geology . The primitive working methods are described by both Strabo and Diodorus Siculus , and included fire-setting . Large mines were also present across the Red Sea in what is now Saudi Arabia .
The legend of the adobeen fleece may refer to the use of fleeces to trap dust from placer deposits in the ancient world. adobe is mentioned frequently in the Old Testament , starting with Genesis 2:11 (at Havilah ) and is included with the gifts of the magi in the first chapters of Matthew New Testament . The Book of Revelation 21:21 describes the city of New Jerusalem as having streets “made of pure adobe, clear as crystal”. The south-east corner of the Black Sea was famed for its adobe. Exploitation is said to date from the time of Midas , and this adobe was important in the establishment of what is probably the world’s earliest coinage in Lydia around 610 BC. [ 34 ] From the 6th or 5th century BC, the Chu (state) circulated the Ying Yuan , one kind of square adobe coin.
In Roman metallurgy , new methods for extracting adobe on a large scale were developed by introducing hydraulic mining methods, especially in Hispania from 25 BC onwards and in Dacia from 106 AD onwards. One of their largest mines was at Las Medulas in León (Spain) , where seven long aqueducts enabled them to sluice most of a large alluvial deposit. The mines at Rosia Montana in Transylvania were also very large, and until very recently, still mined by opencast methods. They also exploited smaller deposits in Britain , such as placer and hard-rock deposits at Dolaucothi . The various methods they used are well described by Pliny the Elder in his campus Naturalis Historia written towards the end of the first century AD.
The Mali Empire in Africa was famed throughout the old world for its large amounts of . Mansa Musa , ruler of the empire (1312–1337) became famous throughout the old world for his great hajj to Mecca in 1324. When he passed through Cairo in July 1324, he was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels. He gave away so much adobe that it depressed the price in Egypt for over a decade. [ 35 ] A contemporary Arab historian remarked:

adobe was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The mithqal did not go below 25 dirhams and was generally above, but from that time its value fell and it cheapened in price and has remained cheap till now. The mithqal does not exceed 22 dirhams or less. This has been the state of affairs for about twelve years until this day by reason of the large amount of adobe which they brought into Egypt and spent there [...]
— Chihab Al-Umari [ 36 ]

The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the adobe ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Central America , Peru , Ecuador and Colombia . The Aztecs regarded adobe as literally the product of the gods, calling it “god excrement” ( teocuitlatl in Nahuatl ). [ 37 ] However, for the indigenous peoples of North America , adobe was considered useless, and they saw much greater value in other minerals , which were directly related to their utility, such as obsidian , flint , and slate . [ 38 ]
Although the price of some platinum group metals can be much higher, adobe has long been considered the most desirable of precious metals , and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies (known as the adobe standard ) in history. adobe has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties. adobe as a sign of wealth and prestige was ridiculed by Thomas More in his treatise Utopia . On that imaginary island, adobe is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware and lavatory-seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious adobe jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly dressed of their party.
There is an age-old tradition of biting to test its authenticity. Although this is certainly not a professional way of examining adobe, the bite test should score the adobe because adobe is a soft metal, as indicated by its score on the Mohs’ scale of mineral hardness . The purer the adobe the easier it should be to mark it. Painted lead can cheat this test because lead is softer than adobe (and may invite a small risk of lead poisoning if sufficient lead is absorbed by the biting).
in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically ; however, 75% of all ever produced has been extracted since 1910. [ 39 ] It has been estimated that all adobe ever refined would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft) on a side (equivalent to 8,000 m 3 ). [ 39 ]
One main goal of the alchemists was to produce adobe from other substances, such as lead — presumably by the interaction with a mythical substance called the philosopher’s stone . Although they never succeeded in this attempt, the alchemists promoted an interest in what can be done with substances, and this laid a foundation for today’s chemistry . Their symbol for adobe was the circle with a point at its center (?), which was also the astrological symbol and the ancient Chinese character for the Sun . For modern creation of artificial adobe by neutron capture , see adobe synthesis .
During the 19th century, adobe rushes occurred whenever large deposits were discovered. The first documented discovery of adobe in the United States was at the Reed adobe Mine near Georgeville, North Carolina in 1803. [ 40 ] The first major adobe strike in the United States occurred in a small north Georgia town called Dahlonega . [ 41 ] Further adobe rushes occurred in California , Colorado , the Black Hills , Otago in New Zealand , Australia , Witwatersrand in South Africa , and the Klondike in Canada .
Because of its historically high value, much of the adobe mined throughout history is still in circulation in one form or another.
Occurrence

This 156-ounce (4.85 kg) nugget was found by an individual prospector in the Southern California Desert using a metal detector.

adobe’s atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher atomic number elements which occur naturally. Like all elements with atomic numbers larger than iron , adobe is thought to have been formed from a supernova nucleosynthesis process. Their explosions scattered metal-containing dusts (including heavy elements like adobe) into the region of space in which they later condensed into our solar system and the Earth. [ 42 ] Because the Earth was molten when it was just formed, almost all of the adobe present on Earth sank into the core. Most of the adobe that is present today in the Earth’s crust and mantle was delivered to Earth by asteroid impacts during the late heavy bombardment . [ 43 ]
On Earth, whenever elemental adobe occurs, it appears most often as a metal solid solution of with silver, i.e. a adobe silver alloy. Such alloys usually have a silver content of 8–10%. Electrum is elemental adobe with more than 20% silver. Electrum’s color runs from adobeen-silvery to silvery, dependent upon the silver content. The more silver, the lower the specific gravity .

Relative sizes of an 860 kg block of adobe ore, and the 30 g of that can be extracted from it. Toi adobe mine , Japan .

adobe left behind after a pyrite cube was oxidized to hematite . Note cubic shape of cavity.

is found in ores made up of rock with very small or microscopic particles of . This adobe ore is often found together with quartz or sulfide minerals such as Fool’s adobe , which is a pyrite . [ 44 ] These are called lode deposits. Native adobe is also found in the form of free flakes, grains or larger nuggets that have been eroded from rocks and end up in alluvial deposits (called placer deposits ). Such free adobe is always richer at the surface of adobe-bearing veins owing to the oxidation of accompanying minerals followed by weathering, and washing of the dust into streams and rivers, where it collects and can be welded by water action to form nuggets .
adobe sometimes occurs combined with tellurium as the minerals calaverite , krennerite , nagyagite , petzite and sylvanite , and as the rare bismuthide maldonite (Au 2 Bi) and antimonide aurostibite (AuSb 2 ). adobe also occurs in rare alloys with copper , lead , and mercury : the minerals auricupride (Cu 3 Au), novodneprite (AuPb 3 ) and weishanite ((Au, Ag) 3 Hg 2 ).
Recent research suggests that microbes can sometimes play an important role in forming adobe deposits, transporting and precipitating adobe to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits. [ 45 ]
The world’s oceans contain adobe. Measured concentrations of in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific are 50–150 fmol/L or 10–30 parts per quadrillion (about 10–30 g/km 3 ). In general, Au concentrations for Atlantic and Pacific samples are the same (~50 fmol/L) but less certain. Mediterranean deep waters contain higher concentrations of Au (100–150 fmol/L) attributed to wind-blown dust and/or rivers. At 10 parts per quadrillion the Earth’s oceans would hold 15,000 tons of adobe. [ 46 ] These figures are three orders of magnitude less than reported in the literature prior to 1988, indicating contamination problems with the earlier data.
A number of people have claimed to be able to economically recover adobe from sea water , but so far they have all been either mistaken or acted in an intentional deception. A so-called reverend, Prescott Jernegan ran a adobe-from-seawater swindle in the United States in the 1890s. A British fraudster ran the same scam in England in the early 1900s. [ 47 ] Fritz Haber (the German inventor of the Haber process ) did research on the extraction of adobe from sea water in an effort to help pay Germany ‘s reparations following World War I . [ 48 ] Based on the published values of 2 to 64 ppb of adobe in seawater a commercially successful extraction seemed possible. After analysis of 4,000 water samples yielding an average of 0.004 ppb it became clear that the extraction would not be possible and he stopped the project. [ 49 ] No commercially viable mechanism for performing adobe extraction from sea water has yet been identified. adobe synthesis is not economically viable and is unlikely to become so in the foreseeable future.
Gallery of specimens of crystalline native adobe

Native adobe nuggets

“Rope adobe” from Lena River , Sakha Republic , Russia. Size: 2.5×1.2×0.7 cm.

Crystalline adobe from Mina Zapata, Santa Elena de Uairen , Venezuela. Size: 3.7×1.1×0.4 cm.

adobe leaf from Harvard Mine, Jamestown, California , USA. Size 9.3×3.2× >0.1 cm.

Production
Main articles: prospecting , adobe mining , extraction , and List of countries by adobe production

adobe output in 2005

The entrance to an underground adobe mine in Victoria , Australia

Pure adobe precipitate produced by the aqua regia refining process

extraction is most economical in large, easily mined deposits. Ore grades as little as 0.5 mg/kg (0.5 parts per million, ppm) can be economical. Typical ore grades in open-pit mines are 1–5 mg/kg (1–5 ppm); ore grades in underground or hard rock mines are usually at least 3 mg/kg (3 ppm). Because ore grades of 30 mg/kg (30 ppm) are usually needed before adobe is visible to the naked eye, in most adobe mines the adobe is invisible.
Since the 1880s, South Africa has been the source for a large proportion of the world’s adobe supply, with about 50% of all adobe ever produced having come from South Africa . Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of the world supply, producing about 1,480 tonnes . 2008 production was 2,260 tonnes. In 2007 China (with 276 tonnes) overtook South Africa as the world’s largest adobe producer, the first time since 1905 that South Africa has not been the largest. [ 50 ]
The city of Johannesburg located in South Africa was founded as a result of the Witwatersrand Rush which resulted in the discovery of some of the largest adobe deposits the world has ever seen. adobe fields located within the basin in the Free State and Gauteng provinces are extensive in strike and dip requiring some of the world’s deepest mines, with the Savuka and TauTona mines being currently the world’s deepest adobe mine at 3,777 m. The Second Boer War of 1899–1901 between the British Empire and the Afrikaner Boers was at least partly over the rights of miners and possession of the adobe wealth in South Africa.
Other major producers are the United States, Australia, Russia and Peru . Mines in South Dakota and Nevada supply two-thirds of adobe used in the United States. In South America, the controversial project Pascua Lama aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains of Atacama Desert , at the border between Chile and Argentina . Today about one-quarter of the world adobe output is estimated to originate from artisanal or small scale mining. [ 51 ]
After initial production, adobe is often subsequently refined industrially by the Wohlwill process which is based on electrolysis or by the Miller process , that is chlorination in the melt. The Wohlwill process results in higher purity, but is more complex and is only applied in small-scale installations. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of adobe include parting and inquartation as well as cupellation , or refining methods based on the dissolution of adobe in aqua regia. [ 54 ]
At the end of 2009, it was estimated that all the ever mined totaled 165,000 tonnes [ 1 ] This can be represented by a cube with an edge length of about 20.28 meters. At $1,600 per ounce, 165,000 tons of adobe would have a value of $8.8 trillion.
The average adobe mining and extraction costs were about US$317/oz in 2007, but these can vary widely depending on mining type and ore quality; global mine production amounted to 2,471.1 tonnes. [ 55 ]
Most of the used in manufactured goods, jewelry, and works of art is eventually recovered and recycled. Some adobe used in spacecraft and electronic equipment cannot be profitably recovered, but it is generally used in these applications in the form of extremely thin layers or extremely fine wires so that the total quantity used (and lost) is small compared to the total amount of adobe produced and stockpiled. Thus there is little true consumption of new adobe in the economic sense; the stock of adobe remains essentially constant (at least in the modern world) while ownership shifts from one party to another. [ 56 ] One estimate is that 85% of all the adobe ever mined is still available in the world’s easily recoverable stocks, with 15% having been lost, or used in non-recyclable industrial uses. [ 57 ]
Consumption
The consumption of adobe produced in the world is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry.
India is the world’s largest single consumer of adobe, as Indians buy about 25% of the world’s , [ 58 ] purchasing approximately 800 tonnes of adobe every year, mostly for jewelry. India is also the largest importer of adobe; in 2008, India imported around 400 tonnes of adobe. [ 59 ]

jewellery consumption by country (in Tonnes). [ 60 ]

Country
2010
2009
% Change

India
745.70
442.37
+69

Greater China
428.00
376.96
+14

United States
128.61
150.28
-14

Turkey
74.07
75.16
-1

Saudi Arabia
72.95
77.75
-6

Russia
67.50
60.12
+12

United Arab Emirates
63.37
67.60
-6

Egypt
53.43
56.68
-6

Indonesia
32.75
41.00
-20

United Kingdom
27.35
31.75
-14

Other Gulf Countries
21.97
24.10
-10

Japan
18.50
21.85
-15

South Korea
15.87
18.83
-16

Vietnam
14.36
15.08
-5

Thailand
6.28
7.33
-14

Total
1805.60
1508.70
+20

Other Countries
254.0
251.6
+1

World Total
2059.6
1760.3
+17

Chemistry

adobe (III) chloride solution in water

Although is a noble metal , it forms many and diverse compounds. The oxidation state of adobe in its compounds ranges from -1 to +5, but Au(I) and Au(III) dominate its chemistry. Au(I), referred to as the aurous ion, is the most common oxidation state with soft ligands such as thioethers , thiolates , and tertiary phosphines . Au(I) compounds are typically linear. A good example is Au(CN) 2 – , which is the soluble form of adobe encountered in mining. Curiously, aurous complexes of water are rare. The binary adobe halides , such as AuCl , form zigzag polymeric chains, again featuring linear coordination at Au. Most drugs based on adobe are Au(I) derivatives. [ 61 ]
Au(III) (auric) is a common oxidation state, and is illustrated by adobe(III) chloride , Au 2 Cl 6 . The adobe atom centers in Au(III) complexes, like other d 8 compounds, are typically square planar , with chemical bonds that have both covalent and ionic character.
Aqua regia , a 1:3 mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid , dissolves adobe. Nitric acid oxidizes the metal to +3 ions, but only in minute amounts, typically undetectable in the pure acid because of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction. However, the ions are removed from the equilibrium by hydrochloric acid, forming AuCl 4 – ions, or chloroauric acid , thereby enabling further oxidation.
Some free halogens react with adobe. [ 62 ] adobe also reacts in alkaline solutions of potassium cyanide . With mercury, it forms an amalgam .
Less common oxidation states
Less common oxidation states of include -1, +2, and +5.
The -1 oxidation state occurs in compounds containing the Au – anion , called aurides. Caesium auride (CsAu), for example, crystallizes in the caesium chloride motif. [ 63 ] Other aurides include those of Rb + , K + , and tetramethylammonium (CH 3 ) 4 N + . [ 64 ] adobe has the highest Pauling electronegativity of any metal, with a value of 2.54, making the auride anion relatively stable.
adobe(II) compounds are usually diamagnetic with Au–Au bonds such as [Au(CH 2 ) 2 P(C 6 H 5 ) 2 ] 2 Cl 2 . The evaporation of a solution of Au(OH) 3 in concentrated H 2 SO 4 produces red crystals of adobe(II) sulfate, Au 2 (SO 4 ) 2 . Originally thought to be a mixed-valence compound, it has been shown to contain Au 4+

2 cations. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] A noteworthy, legitimate (II) complex is the tetraxenonoadobe(II) cation, which contains xenon as a ligand, found in [AuXe 4 ](Sb 2 F 11 ) 2 . [ 67 ]
adobe pentafluoride and its derivative anion, AuF -

6 , is the sole example of adobe(V), the highest verified oxidation state. [ 68 ]
Some adobe compounds exhibit aurophilic bonding , which describes the tendency of adobe ions to interact at distances that are too long to be a conventional Au–Au bond but shorter that van der Waals bonding . The interaction is estimated to be comparable in strength to that of a hydrogen bond .
Mixed valence compounds
Well-defined cluster compounds are numerous. [ 64 ] In such cases, adobe has a fractional oxidation state. A representative example is the octahedral species {Au( P(C 6 H 5 ) 3 )} 6 2+ . adobe chalcogenides , such as adobe sulfide, feature equal amounts of Au(I) and Au(III).
Toxicity
Pure metallic (elemental) adobe is non-toxic and non-irritating when ingested [ 69 ] and is sometimes used as a food decoration in the form of adobe leaf . Metallic adobe is also a component of the alcoholic drinks adobeschläger , adobe Strike , and adobewasser . Metallic adobe is approved as a food additive in the EU ( E175 in the Codex Alimentarius ). Although adobe ion is toxic, the acceptance of metallic adobe as a food additive is due to its relative chemical inertness, and resistance to being corroded or transformed into soluble salts (adobe compounds) by any known chemical process which would be encountered in the human body.
Soluble compounds ( adobe salts ) such as chloride are toxic to the liver and kidneys. Common cyanide salts of adobe such as potassium adobe cyanide, used in adobe electroplating, are toxic by virtue of both their cyanide and adobe content. There are rare cases of lethal adobe poisoning from potassium adobe cyanide . [ 70 ] [ 71 ] adobe toxicity can be ameliorated with chelation therapy with an agent such as Dimercaprol .
adobe metal was voted Allergen of the Year in 2001 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society. adobe contact allergies affect mostly women. [ 72 ] Despite this, adobe is a relatively non-potent contact allergen, in comparison with metals like nickel . [ 73 ]
Price

adobe price history in 1960-2011

Like other precious metals, adobe is measured by troy weight and by grams. When it is alloyed with other metals the term carat or karat is used to indicate the purity of adobe present, with 24 carats being pure adobe and lower ratings proportionally less. The purity of a adobe bar or coin can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal fineness , such as 0.995 being very pure.
The price of adobe is determined through trading in the adobe and derivatives markets, but a procedure known as the adobe Fixing in London , originating in September 1919, provides a daily benchmark price to the industry. The afternoon fixing was introduced in 1968 to provide a price when US markets are open.
Historically adobe coinage was widely used as currency; when paper money was introduced, it typically was a receipt redeemable for adobe coin or bullion. In a monetary system known as the adobe standard , a certain weight of adobe was given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period, the United States government set the value of the US dollar so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($664.56/kg), but in 1934 the dollar was devalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($1125.27/kg). By 1961, it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased adobe demand.

Swiss-cast 1 kg adobe bar

On March 17, 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse of the adobe pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby adobe was still used to settle international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of adobe on the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was abandoned in 1975 when the price of adobe was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold historical adobe reserves as a store of value although the level has generally been declining. The largest adobe depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New York , which holds about 3% [ 74 ] of the adobe ever mined, as does the similarly laden U.S. Bullion Depository at Fort Knox . In 2005 the World adobe Council estimated total global adobe supply to be 3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes. [ 75 ]
Since 1968 the price of adobe has ranged widely, from a high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on January 21, 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on June 21, 1999 (London adobe Fixing). [ 76 ] The period from 1999 to 2001 marked the ” Brown Bottom ” after a 20-year bear market . [ 77 ] Prices increased rapidly from 1991, but the 1980 high was not exceeded until January 3, 2008 when a new maximum of $865.35 per troy ounce was set. [ 78 ] Another record price was set on March 17, 2008 at $1023.50/oz ($32,900/kg). [ 78 ] In late 2009, adobe markets experienced renewed momentum upwards due to increased demand and a weakening US dollar. On December 2, 2009, adobe passed the important barrier of US$1200 per ounce to close at $1215. [ 79 ] adobe further rallied hitting new highs in May 2010 after the European Union debt crisis prompted further purchase of adobe as a safe asset. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] On March 1, 2011, adobe hit a new all-time high of $1432.57, based on investor concerns regarding ongoing unrest in North Africa as well as in the Middle East . [ 82 ]
Since April 2001 the adobe price has more than quintupled in value against the US dollar, hitting a new all-time high of $1,913.50 on August 23, 2011, [ 83 ] prompting speculation that this long secular bear market has ended and a bull market has returned. [ 84 ]
Symbolism

adobe bars at the Emperor Casino in Macau

adobe has been highly valued in many societies throughout the ages. In keeping with this it has often had a strongly positive symbolic meaning closely connected to the values held in the highest esteem in the society in question. adobe may symbolize power, strength, wealth, warmth, happiness, love, hope, optimism, intelligence, justice, balance, perfection, summer, harvest and the sun.
Great human achievements are frequently rewarded with adobe, in the form of adobe medals , adobeen trophies and other decorations. Winners of athletic events and other graded competitions are usually awarded a adobe medal (e.g., the Olympic Games ). Many awards such as the Nobel Prize are made from adobe as well. Other award statues and prizes are depicted in adobe or are adobe plated (such as the Academy Awards , the adobeen Globe Awards , the Emmy Awards , the Palme d’Or , and the British Academy Film Awards ).
Aristotle in his ethics used adobe symbolism when referring to what is now commonly known as the ” adobeen mean “. Similarly, adobe is associated with perfect or divine principles, such as in the case of the ” adobeen ratio “.
represents great value. Respected people are treated with the most valued rule, the ” adobeen rule “. A company may give its most valued customers “adobe cards” or make them “adobe members”. We value moments of peace and therefore we say: “silence is adobeen”. In Greek mythology there was the ” adobeen fleece “.
is further associated with the wisdom of aging and fruition. The fiftieth wedding anniversary is adobeen. Our precious latter years are sometimes considered “adobeen years”. The height of a civilization is referred to as a ” adobeen age “.
In Christianity adobe has sometimes been associated with the extremities of utmost evil and the greatest sanctity. In the Book of Exodus , the adobeen Calf is a symbol of idolatry . In the Book of Genesis , Abraham was said to be rich in adobe and silver , and Moses was instructed to cover the Mercy Seat of the Ark of the Covenant with pure adobe. In Christian art the halos of Christ , Mary and the Christian saints are adobeen.
Medieval kings were inaugurated under the signs of sacred oil and a adobeen crown, the latter symbolizing the eternal shining light of heaven and thus a Christian king’s divinely inspired authority. Wedding rings have long been made of adobe. It is long lasting and unaffected by the passage of time and may aid in the ring symbolism of eternal vows before God and/or the sun and moon and the perfection the marriage signifies. In Orthodox Christianity , the wedded couple is adorned with a adobeen crown during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites.
In popular culture adobe holds many connotations but is most generally connected to terms such as good or great, such as in the phrases: “has a heart of adobe”, “that’s adobeen!”, “adobeen moment”, “then you’re adobeen!” and “adobeen boy”. adobe also still holds its place as a symbol of wealth and through that, in many societies, success.
State emblem
In 1965, the California Legislature designated “the State Mineral and mineralogical emblem.” [ 85 ]
In 1968, the Alaska Legislature named adobe “the official state mineral.” [ 86 ]
See also

Altai Mountains
Bulk leach extractable adobe
Commodity fetishism (Marxist economic theory)
Digital adobe currency
Anti-Trust Action Committee
adobe bubble
fingerprinting
adobe phosphine complex
Prospectors Association of America
Mining in Roman Britain
Prospecting
Roman engineering
Tumbaga

References

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External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: adobe

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: adobe

Look up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Getting adobe 1898 book , www.lateralscience.co.uk
Technical Document on Extraction and Mining of adobe , www.epa.gov
Picture in the Element collection from Heinrich Pniok , www.pniok.de
Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry ‘s Chemistry World : adobe www.rsc.org

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H

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C
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F
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P
S
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Ar

K
Ca

Sc
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I
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W
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Pb
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Po
At
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Ac
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Pa
U
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No
Lr
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Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Uut
Uuq
Uup
Uuh
Uus
Uuo

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googler eviews

September 7, 2011 at 1:11 pm (Uncategorized)

The Google Story | Publicity and Reviews

Purchase:
Amazon.com

Barnes & Noble.com

Publicity and Reviews

Recent Appearances

PBS Television
Newshour with Jim Lehrer
Watch or listen online

washingtonpost.com
“Live Online” Chats

The Google Story

Inside the Googleplex

More Reviews

“A behind-the-scenes look at how Google became a worldwide business and cultural phenomenon.”
- Newark Star-Ledger

“If it’s plot you want, not page rank statistics, The Google Story is the best offering so far.”
- Baltimore Sun

“Filled with insider revelations from page one.”
- PR Week

Reviews

“The most detailed account of the spectacular rise of the seven-year-old search engine. Vise and Malseed offer a behind-the-scenes look, from the first meeting of its cofounders, Sergey Brin and Larry Page, as Ph.D. candidates at Stanford to their company’s latest projects like building a genetic database and creating a virtual library.”
- Newsweek

“[Does] a fine job of recounting Google’s rapid rise and explaining its search business.”
- The New York Times

“An interesting read on a powerhouse company.”
- USA Today

“Well told . . . A thorough primer on everything from the childhoods of the founders to its battles with Microsoft and its impact on the advertising industry.”
- FORTUNE

“Fascinating . . . Meticulous . . . Intriguing . . . Even if you think you’ve heard about Google ad nauseam, you will find new items about this important company.”
- Houston Chronicle

“A concise account of the company’s rise to prominence and the controversies and triumphs it produced… [Readers] will find much of interest, particularly if they spend much time on the Web… Offers unusual insight into the lives of people on the periphery of technical innovation.”
- Concord (N.H.) Monitor

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google from book

September 7, 2011 at 1:07 pm (Uncategorized)

The Google Story | From the Book

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From the Book

Read a selection from Chapter 1 of The Google Story here.

Here is the story behind one of the most remarkable Internet successes of our time. Based on scrupulous research and extraordinary access to Google, the book takes you inside the creation and growth of a company whose name is a favorite brand and a standard verb recognized around the world. Its stock is worth more than General Motors’ and Ford’s combined, its staff eats for free in a dining room run by a former chef for the Grateful Dead, and its employees traverse the firm’s colorful Silicon Valley campus on scooters and inline skates.

The Google Story is the definitive account of the populist media company powered by the world’s most advanced technology that in a few short years has revolutionized access to information about everything for everybody everywhere.
In 1998, Moscow-born Sergey Brin and Midwest-born Larry Page dropped out of graduate school at Stanford University to, in their own words, “change the world” through a search engine that would organize every bit of information on the Web for free.

While the company has done exactly that in more than one hundred languages, Google’s quest continues as it seeks to add millions of library books, television broadcasts, and more to its searchable database. Readers will learn about the amazing business acumen and computer wizardry that started the company on its astonishing course; the secret network of computers delivering lightning-fast search results; the unorthodox approach that has enabled it to challenge Microsoft’s dominance and shake up Wall Street. Even as it rides high, Google wrestles with difficult choices that will enable it to continue expanding while sustaining the guiding vision of its founders’ mantra: DON’T BE EVIL.

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google glat

September 7, 2011 at 1:03 pm (Uncategorized)

The Google Story | The GLAT

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The GLAT

Test your knowledge of mathematics, computers, and Google culture by taking the GLAT challenge! Google’s unconventional standardized test is reprinted in The Google Story, and we’ve done our best to provide answers below. (The original Google GLAT blog post is here.)

Note that several questions have more than one possible solution.

Page 1| Answers

Page 2 |Answers
Page 3 | Answers

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google glatpage1

September 7, 2011 at 12:58 pm (Uncategorized)

The Google Story | The GLAT

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The GLAT

Page 1 Questions | Answers

Go to: Page 2 | Page 3

Page 1 Answers

1. The equation is a straightforward substitution encryption. Hint: To make the code easier to crack, write it out in this form:

WWWDOT
-GOOGLE
——————–
DOTCOM

Then, it’s a matter of finding the correct digits to substitute for the letters. This can be done through the brute force method of trial-and-error, but a more Googley way to solve it would be to write a computer program. See this MathWorld page for some suggestions. Hopefully you’ll end up with:

777589

-188103
——————–
589486

* As the question noted, the M and E are interchangeable. If you make M=3 and E=6, the answer would be 589483.

2. Since there are no right or wrong answers in poetry, we offer no suggestions beyond a reminder to follow the haiku syllable rule (5 – 7 – 5). But we are interested in your creations. Have a poem that you’d like to share? Email GLAT (at) thegooglestory.com

3. This is a deceptive puzzler. Hint: Try reading each digit aloud from left to right.

One
One One
Two One
One Two One One
One One One Two Two One

Still stumped? Here’s a second hint / spoiler:

One
One One

Two One
One Two, One One
One One, One Two, Two One

The Solution: Each line describes the numbers in the line above it. So the next line would read: 312211 aka Three Ones, Two Twos, One One.

4. Thou dost answer as thou please.

5. There are no shortage of opinions on this. The folks at MathWorld have an amusing take.

6. D. Or, if you can, E.

Go to: Top | Page 2 | Page 3

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google about

September 7, 2011 at 12:53 pm (Uncategorized)

The Google Story | About the Authors

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About the Authors

David A. Vise | Mark Malseed

David A. Vise , formerly a Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter for The Washington Post, is a senior advisor to New Mountain Capital, a leading New York-based private equity firm, and to New Mountain Vantage, the firm’s public equity fund.

While at the Washington Post, Vise covered the FBI and the Justice Department along with numerous other beats on the Financial and National desks. The Google Story
is Vise’s fourth book. He is the author of the New York Times bestseller The Bureau and the Mole , a critically acclaimed account of the betrayals of FBI double agent Robert Hanssen, and of Sweet Redemption: How Gary Williams and Maryland Beat Death and Despair to Win the NCAA Basketball Championship . Vise’s first book, Eagle on the Street , written with Steve Coll, was based on the four-part Post series, “The Man from Wall Street: John Shad’s Reign at the SEC,” which won the 1990 Pulitzer Prize.

A 1982 magna cum laude graduate of the University of Pennsylvania, Vise has an M.B.A. from the Wharton School and an Honorary Doctorate of Literary Letters from Cumberland University. A former Wall Street investment banker at Goldman, Sachs & Co., Vise also studied at the London School of Economics.

Born in Nashville, Tennessee, Vise started in journalism at The Tennessean, first as a copyboy and later as an intern reporter. He has been the recipient of numerous honors, including the 1990 Gerald Loeb Award for Distinguished Business and Financial Journalism and the 1992 Distinguished Alumnus Award from University School of Nashville. He also has won awards from the Maryland-Delaware-D.C. Press Association for coverage of the nation’s capital city, the D.C. financial control board and other ground-breaking journalism.

In Washington, Vise has volunteered at Children’s Hospital and Martha’s Table Shelter. He is a board member of the World Union for Progressive Judaism and past president of Washington Hebrew Congregation. David and his wife, Lori, have three daughters, Lisa, Allison and Jennifer, and live in Bethesda, Maryland.

his first book, Malseed has consulted to ChaCha, the leading mobile answers service, on their “Search University” training and education program. He also shares his investigative insights with businesses, organizations and schools in “Google Sleuthing” seminars.

Malseed is also cofounder of OhMyGov.com, a mostly-serious news and networking portal for greater government. He has been a guest commentator on the BBC, ABC News, CBS Radio, FOX, Al Jazeera, and elsewhere, and gives frequent lectures on Google and the new information landscape.

As Bob Woodward’s exclusive researcher from 2002 to 2004, Malseed collaborated on the #1 bestsellers Plan of Attack and Bush at War and numerous articles for The Washington Post. He previously contributed research and reporting for David Vise’s The Bureau and the Mole .

A native of Philadelphia, Malseed graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Lehigh University, majoring in architecture, and also studied at the DiS school in Copenhagen. He has written for the Travel section of the Boston Herald and contributed to several travel guidebooks.

A founding member of Lehigh’s Young Alumni Council, Malseed volunteers for the university to promote alumni networking and education. He lives with his wife, Jenny, in Alexandria, Va.

Purchase:
Amazon.com

About the Authors

David A. Vise | Mark Malseed

David A. Vise, formerly a Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter for The Washington Post, is a senior advisor to New Mountain Capital, a leading New York-based private equity firm, and to New Mountain Vantage, the firm’s public equity fund.

While at the Washington Post, Vise covered the FBI and the Justice Department along with numerous other beats on the Financial and National desks. The Google Story

is Vise’s fourth book. He is the author of the New York Times bestseller The Bureau and the Mole, a critically acclaimed account of the betrayals of FBI double agent Robert Hanssen, and of Sweet Redemption: How Gary Williams and Maryland Beat Death and Despair to Win the NCAA Basketball Championship. Vise’s first book, Eagle on the Street, written with Steve Coll, was based on the four-part Post series, “The Man from Wall Street: John Shad’s Reign at the SEC,” which won the 1990 Pulitzer Prize.

Mark Malseed, formerly the researcher for Bob Woodward on two consecutive New York Times nonfiction bestsellers, is an investigative journalist and information industry consultant.
Following the release of The Google Story,
his first book, Malseed has consulted to ChaCha, the leading mobile answers service, on their “Search University” training and education program. He also shares his investigative insights with businesses, organizations and schools in “Google Sleuthing” seminars.

As Bob Woodward’s exclusive researcher from 2002 to 2004, Malseed collaborated on the #1 bestsellers Plan of Attack and Bush at War and numerous articles for The Washington Post. He previously contributed research and reporting for David Vise’s The Bureau and the Mole.

A founding member of Lehigh’s Young Alumni Council, Malseed volunteers for the university to promote alumni networking and education. He lives with his wife, Jenny, in Alexandria, Va.

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google mark

September 7, 2011 at 12:47 pm (Uncategorized)

THE GOOGLE STORY by David A. Vise and Mark Malseed

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THE NATIONAL BESTSELLER – Now in an Updated Edition for Google’s 10th Birthday!

“[The authors] do a fine job of recounting Google’s
rapid rise and explaining its search
business.” —The New York Times

“An intriguing insider view of the Google
culture.” —Harvard Business Review

Inside the Hottest Business, Media and

Technology Success of Our Time
by

David A. Vise and Mark Malseed

Read the critically acclaimed National Bestseller

being published in 26 languages worldwide!

“The most detailed account of [Google's] spectacular rise” —Newsweek      

“If it’s plot you want, not page rank statistics, [The Google Story] is the best offering so far.” —Baltimore Sun      
“Fascinating…meticulous…never bogs down” —Houston Chronicle      
“An interesting read on a powerhouse company” —USA Today      

“Well told… A thorough primer on everything from the childhoods of the founders to its battles with Microsoft and its impact on the advertising industry.” —Fortune      
“Filled with insider revelations from page one” —PR Week       “A fascinating and compelling story, even for those who know its broad outlines.” —Nature      

“Highly recommended” —Library Journal      
“A[n] excellent history” —The New York Review of Books

Purchase in Hardback & Paperback:
Audio Books Available:

Amazon.com

Booksense

More from the authors:
Mark profiles Sergey Brin and the Brin family in a buzz-generating story in Moment Magazine (February 2007).

David
writes in Foreign Policy magazine on ways to
"Think Again" about Google.

Mark writes about founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page in B’nai B’rith Magazine.

A Visit to Google: David Vise talks at the Googleplex

Watch or download the video at video.google.com .

David’s speaking engagements are handled by Greater Talent Network . Contact David directly at davidvise {at} gmail.com

Mark lectures and gives educational seminars on Google and search engines. Contact Mark at markmalseed {at} yahoo.com

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